1. Historiography & Multi-Faceted Causes

The uprising was not a sudden explosion but the culmination of a century of colonial exploitation across economic, political, and socio-religious domains...

2. Strategic Turning Points & Post-1857 Administrative Shift

• Government of India Act 1858: Liquidation of Company rule, assumption by Crown.
• Peel Commission (1859): Army reorganization on communal and regional lines to avoid future pan-Indian mutiny.

• Key concept: Music: Indian Heritage & Culture • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

Indian Heritage & Culture: Music

Classical Music

Two main schools of classical music - Hindustani and Carnatic - continue to survive through oral tradition being passed on by teachers to disciples. This has led to the existence of family traditions called gharanas and sampradayas.

Hindustani Music

• Hindustani Sangeet is usually considered to be a mixture of traditional Hindu musical concepts and
Persian performance practice.
• Hindustani music is based on the raga system.
• A raga is a melodic scale, consisting of notes from the basic seven nodes known as sa, re, ga, ma pa, dha,
and ni.
• Khyal and Dhrupad are 2 major types of compositions within the Hindustani genre.
• There are many musical instruments that are associated with Hindustani sangeet. The most famous are
the tabla, sitar, sarangi, santur, and the sarod.
Types of Hindustani Music and its meaning
Dhrupad - Effort from vocal chords and lungs.
Dhamar - Play of Krishna during holy.
Khayal - Delicate, romantic and based on imagination.
Thumri - Romantic religious literature.
Tappa - Quick turn of phase.
Bhajan - Religious devotional songs.
Tarana - Syllables sung together to set a rhythm.
Sabadas - Sikh religious songs.
Qawali - Indo-Muslim repertories of songs in groups.
Ghazal - Independent couplets on love and devotion

Carnatic Music

• Carnatic Sangeet is found in the South Indian states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Andhra
Pradesh.
• Purandardas is considered as the father of Carnatic Music.
• Carnatic music acquired its present form in the 18th century under the "trinity" of Carnatic music;
Thyagaraja, Shamashastri, and Muthuswami composed their famous songs.
• It is also based upon a system of ragam (rag) and thalam (tal).
• Musical instruments veena, violin, mridangam, nadaswaram, and the tavil.
• Kriti is a dominant element.
Types of Carnatic Music and its meaning Ragam
Tanam-Pallavi - Elaborate rhythmic and melodic variation in unmeasured sense.
Kriti-Kirthanai - Most popular type which refers to devotional music laced with poetic beauty.
Varnam - Performed at the beginning of a concert; a completely composed piece.
Padam - Slower tempoed love songs referring to the human yearning for the adored god head.
Javalis - Faster tempoed love songs with direct description of human love.
Tillana - Meaningful phrases are interspersed with variety of meaningless syllables.

Folk Music

• Folk Music like Lavani, Dandiya, Bhagavathi etc.
• Fusion of Classical and Folk music such as Sugama Sangeetha - Thevaram, Keertan etc.,
• Bhajan, Qawwali, Shabad Gana Sangeeth, Haveli Sangeeth etc.,
• Revival of folk music in the wake of globalization.

Modern Music

Different types of music like Rock, Pop etc. its influence on classical and folk
music.

Note:

• Compare and contrast between Hindustani and Carnatic music, classical and suguama sangeeta, folk and classical music etc.
• Personalities and their contribution to music traditions.
• Institution, chief characteristics of music and influence of classic music on contemporary music and vice versa.

Musical Instruments

• Percussion instruments/ Awanad Vadya like Tabala, Mrudangam etc.
• Wind Instruments/ Sushira Vadya like flute, shehanayi.
• String Instruments/ Tata vadya like Sarangi, violin, sitar and veena.
• Solid Instruments/ Gana vadya like manjira, jal tarang etc.

Modern Development in Music

Gandarva Mahavidyala, Sangeet Nataka Academy etc.

• Key concept: FIRST ANGLO-MYSORE WAR (1767-1769) • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

The English were confident of their military strength after their success in Bengal. They concluded a treaty with the Nizam of Hyderabad (1766) persuading him to give them the Northern Circars (region) in lieu of which they said they would protect the Nizam from Haidar Ali. Haidar already had territorial disputes with the Nawab of Arcot and differences with the Marathas.

The Nizam, the Marathas, and the English allied together against Haidar Ali. Haidar Ali with his diplomatic skill turned the Nizam into an ally and paid the Marathas to turn them neutral.

The war concluded with the Treaty of Madras which provided for the exchange of prisoners and mutual restitution of conquests. Haidar Ali was promised the help of the English in case he was attacked by any other power.

Also, Read

• 1st Mysore War
• 2nd Anglo-Mysore War (1780-1784)
• 3rd Anglo-Mysore War (1790-1792)
• 4th Anglo-Mysore War (1799)

• Key concept: Ghadar Party • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

The Ghadar Party was a revolutionary nationalist organisation formed by Indian expatriates in North America to overthrow British colonial rule in India through an armed revolution. It played an important role in the history of revolutionary nationalism during the Indian freedom struggle, particularly during the First World War (1914–1918).

The movement drew support mainly from Indian immigrants living in the United States and Canada, especially Punjabi workers, peasants and former soldiers. Through revolutionary newspapers, political literature and attempts to organise a military uprising, the Ghadar Party sought to mobilise Indians against British rule.

1. Formation of the Ghadar Party

The Ghadar Party emerged in response to British colonial oppression in India and the racial discrimination experienced by Indian immigrants in North America.

• Established: 1913

• Original organisation: Hindi Association of the Pacific Coast, also known as the Hindustan Association of the Pacific Coast.

• Headquarters: Yugantar Ashram, San Francisco, California, USA.

• First president: Baba Sohan Singh Bhakna.

• Prominent organiser and intellectual: Lala Har Dayal.

• Main objective: To end British rule in India through an armed revolution and establish an independent government.

• Major publication: The Ghadar, a revolutionary weekly newspaper.

The organisation developed through meetings of Indian immigrants on the Pacific Coast of North America. Its activities brought together workers, peasants, students and political revolutionaries who opposed British imperialism.

2. Why Was the Ghadar Party Formed?

Several factors contributed to the rise of the Ghadar movement:

1. British colonial exploitation: Economic hardship, political repression and limited opportunities under colonial rule encouraged revolutionary opposition.

2. Racial discrimination abroad: Indian migrants in the United States and Canada experienced discriminatory immigration policies, racial prejudice and unequal treatment.

3. Influence of revolutionary nationalism: International revolutionary movements and the examples of anti-colonial struggles influenced Indian expatriates.

4. Desire for complete independence: The Ghadar revolutionaries rejected British colonial authority and advocated an armed struggle to establish self-government.

5. International network of Indians: Indian immigrants in North America and other countries provided the organisation with volunteers, funds, printing facilities and communication networks.

3. The Ghadar Newspaper

The weekly newspaper The Ghadar was central to the movement's activities. Its first issue appeared in San Francisco on 1 November 1913.

The newspaper published revolutionary articles, poems, political commentary and anti-imperialist literature. It encouraged Indians to oppose British rule and participate in the struggle for independence.

Important facts about the newspaper:

• It was published from the organisation's headquarters at Yugantar Ashram in San Francisco.

• It circulated among Indian communities abroad and was sent to India through various channels.

• It appeared in languages including Urdu, Punjabi and other Indian languages.

• It helped spread revolutionary nationalist ideas among Indian expatriates and people in India.

• Its name became associated with the organisation itself, which came to be popularly known as the Ghadar Party.

The word Ghadar means rebellion or revolt. In the context of the movement, it referred to an uprising against British colonial rule.

The publication Ghadar di Gunj (Echoes of Revolt) was also associated with the movement's revolutionary literature.

4. Objectives and Programme of the Ghadar Party

The Ghadar Party aimed to achieve Indian independence through coordinated revolutionary action.

Its principal objectives included:

• Overthrowing British rule through armed revolution.

• Encouraging Indian soldiers serving in the British Indian Army to rebel against British authority.

• Publishing revolutionary newspapers, pamphlets and literature.

• Organising Indian expatriates and raising funds for the freedom struggle.

• Procuring arms and arranging their transfer to India.

• Establishing revolutionary networks across India and abroad.

• Coordinating an uprising in India during a period when Britain was engaged in war.

The party believed that the First World War could weaken British control and create an opportunity for a nationwide revolt.

5. Important Leaders of the Ghadar Party

Lala Har Dayal

A prominent revolutionary intellectual and organiser, Har Dayal helped develop the movement's political ideology and revolutionary publications. He was closely associated with the organisation's early activities in the United States.

Baba Sohan Singh Bhakna

He was the first president of the Ghadar organisation and an important representative of Punjabi immigrant workers who supported the revolutionary movement.

Ram Chandra

Ram Chandra became an important leader of the movement and took charge of the newspaper's activities after Har Dayal's departure from the United States.

Kartar Singh Sarabha

A young revolutionary associated with the Ghadar movement, Sarabha participated in efforts to organise the revolt in India. He was arrested and executed in 1915 following the Lahore Conspiracy Case proceedings.

Maulvi Barkatullah

Barkatullah was an influential revolutionary and nationalist intellectual who supported the movement's international activities and opposition to British imperialism.

Bhai Parmanand

He was associated with the revolutionary nationalist movement and contributed to efforts to organise Indian nationalists abroad.

Other important personalities

• Bhagwan Singh: Revolutionary preacher and nationalist organiser associated with Indian communities abroad.

• Vishnu Ganesh Pingle: Revolutionary who participated in the preparations for the 1915 uprising.

• Rash Behari Bose: Revolutionary who became involved in efforts to coordinate the planned revolt in India.

• Sachindra Nath Sanyal: Revolutionary associated with the wider revolutionary movement and preparations for the uprising.

Exam note: Do not confuse the first president, Sohan Singh Bhakna, with Lala Har Dayal, who was a prominent organiser and intellectual of the movement.

6. Komagata Maru Incident (1914)

The Komagata Maru incident was a major event that intensified anti-British sentiment among Indian expatriates and strengthened support for the Ghadar movement.

In 1914, Gurdit Singh chartered the Japanese steamship Komagata Maru, which carried Indian passengers seeking entry into Canada. Canadian immigration restrictions prevented most passengers from landing, and the ship was forced to return.

When the ship reached Budge Budge, near Calcutta, in September 1914, a confrontation occurred between the returning passengers and colonial authorities. Several people were killed, and others were arrested.

The incident exposed racial discrimination against Indians abroad and increased anger towards British colonial rule.

Significance: The Komagata Maru incident encouraged some Indian expatriates to return to India and support revolutionary efforts against British rule.

7. Ghadar Movement and the First World War

The outbreak of the First World War in 1914 created what Ghadar revolutionaries viewed as an opportunity to challenge British rule.

Britain's military commitments abroad, they believed, could make it more difficult for the colonial government to maintain control in India.

The Ghadar Party therefore encouraged Indian expatriates to return to India, mobilise local supporters and persuade Indian soldiers to participate in an armed uprising.

Thousands of revolutionaries and supporters responded to the call, although British intelligence and security measures disrupted many of their plans.

8. Ghadar Conspiracy and the Planned Revolt of 1915

The Ghadar revolutionaries attempted to organise a coordinated uprising in India, particularly in Punjab, with the participation of soldiers in the British Indian Army.

The plan involved:

• Returning revolutionary volunteers to India.

• Establishing contacts with Indian soldiers.

• Collecting arms and organising revolutionary networks.

• Coordinating military rebellions at selected locations.

The date 21 February 1915 was fixed for the planned uprising. However, British authorities learned of the conspiracy, and the plans were disrupted through arrests, surveillance and the seizure of revolutionary materials.

The uprising failed to develop into the intended nationwide revolt. Several revolutionaries were tried in the Lahore Conspiracy Case and related proceedings; some were executed, while others received lengthy prison sentences.

Kartar Singh Sarabha became one of the best-known martyrs associated with the failed uprising.

9. Historical Significance of the Ghadar Party

The Ghadar Party holds an important place in the history of India's freedom struggle for several reasons:

1. International character: It connected Indian nationalists living abroad with revolutionary activities directed against British rule in India.

2. Revolutionary nationalism: It advocated armed resistance rather than relying exclusively on constitutional methods or petitions.

3. Role of expatriate Indians: It demonstrated how overseas Indian communities could contribute money, volunteers, publications and political support to the independence movement.

4. Military mobilisation: Its attempt to encourage Indian soldiers to rebel highlighted the importance revolutionaries attached to the army in challenging colonial rule.

5. Political awareness: Its newspaper and pamphlets spread anti-imperialist ideas among Indian communities across national borders.

6. Legacy: Although the planned revolt failed, the movement became an important chapter in the history of revolutionary nationalism and inspired later generations of freedom fighters.

10. Quick Revision Table

11. Important Facts for Competitive Examinations

• The Ghadar Party was formed in 1913 by Indian expatriates in North America.

• San Francisco was its headquarters.

• The organisation's first president was Sohan Singh Bhakna.

• Lala Har Dayal was a prominent organiser and intellectual associated with the movement.

• The newspaper The Ghadar began publication on 1 November 1913.

• The Komagata Maru incident and the outbreak of the First World War in 1914 encouraged revolutionary mobilisation.

• The Ghadar revolutionaries attempted to organise an uprising in India in 1915.

• The planned uprising was disrupted by British intelligence and arrests.

• Kartar Singh Sarabha was executed in 1915 after proceedings associated with the Lahore Conspiracy Case.

12. Practice MCQs

Q1. In which year was the Ghadar Party established?

A. 1905
B. 1911
C. 1913
D. 1919

Answer: C. 1913

Q2. Where was the headquarters of the Ghadar Party located?

A. London
B. San Francisco
C. Berlin
D. Tokyo

Answer: B. San Francisco

Q3. Who was the first president of the Ghadar organisation?

A. Lala Har Dayal
B. Kartar Singh Sarabha
C. Sohan Singh Bhakna
D. Rash Behari Bose

Answer: C. Sohan Singh Bhakna

Q4. Which newspaper was associated with the Ghadar Party?

A. Kesari
B. Young India
C. The Ghadar
D. New India

Answer: C. The Ghadar

Q5. Which event in 1914 intensified anti-British sentiment among Indian expatriates?

A. Jallianwala Bagh massacre
B. Komagata Maru incident
C. Chauri Chaura incident
D. Simon Commission

Answer: B. Komagata Maru incident

Q6. The planned Ghadar uprising in India was primarily intended to:

A. Support British recruitment during the war
B. Establish separate provincial governments
C. Encourage an armed revolt against British rule
D. Demand only constitutional reforms

Answer: C. Encourage an armed revolt against British rule

Q7. Kartar Singh Sarabha is associated with which movement?

A. Ghadar movement
B. Home Rule movement
C. Swadeshi movement only
D. Khilafat movement

Answer: A. Ghadar movement

Conclusion

The Ghadar Party was an important revolutionary organisation in India's struggle for independence. Formed by Indian expatriates in 1913, it combined overseas political mobilisation, revolutionary journalism and plans for armed resistance. Although its planned uprising of 1915 failed, its contribution to revolutionary nationalism remains a significant topic in Modern Indian History and competitive examinations.

• Key concept: Nimbarka • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

Younger contemporary of Ramanujam who propounded the Dvaita advaita philosophy and the philosophy of Bheda Abheda (difference/ non–difference).

According to him, Brahman or the supreme soul transforms itself into the souls of the world, which are therefore real, distinct, and different from Brahman.

Like Vishista Advaita, the Bheda Abheda school also believes that the world and Brahman are both equally real, and that the world is a part of Brahman.

• Key concept: PADMANABHA SWAMY TEMPLE • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

o It is a Hindu temple.

o The temple is built in an intricate fusion of the Chera style and the Dravidian style of architecture, featuring high walls, and a 16th-century gopura.

o The principal deity Padmanabhaswamy (Vishnu) is enshrined in the "Anantha Shayana" posture, the eternal yogic sleep on the serpent Adi Shesha.

o The Temple has been referred to in the Sangam period of literature between 500 BCE and 300 CE several times.

• Key concept: King Krishnadevaraya • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

He was the king of the Vijayanagara Empire who reigned in the 16th century over most of South India. He built large tanks and canals for irrigation. He maintained friendly relations with the Portuguese governor, Albuquerque.

Portuguese traveler Domingo Paes and Barbosa visited his court.

Eight eminent luminaries in literature known as Ashtadiggajas were at his court.

He was a Sri Vaishnava, a follower of the Tamil saint Ramanuja.

He was commonly known as abhinava-bhoja, ―a New Bhoja,‖ sakala-kala-bhoja, ―Bhoja in all arts,‖ and Andhra Bhoja.

He wrote Amuktamalyada, which tells the story of the Tamil poet-saint Andal. He wrote Amuktamalyada in Telugu. The famous Allasani Peddana, the author of Manucharitram, also known as Andhra Kavitapitamaha was part of eight poets in the court of King Krishnadevaraya

Recently, the first-ever epigraphical reference to the date of death of Vijayanagara king Krishnadevaraya has been discovered at Honnenahalli in the Tumakuru district.

The inscription is engraved on a slab kept on the north side of the Gopalakrishna temple.

The inscription is written in Kannada and also registers the gift of village Honnenahalli in Tumakuru for conducting worship to the god Veeraprasanna Hanumantha of Tumakuru.

He assumed the title of ‘Yavanarajyasthapanacharya’ (Establisher of the Yavanaor Muslim kingdom).

In 1523 he captured Orissa and Warangal.

• Key concept: Civil Disobedience Movement • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

• The Lahore Congress of 1929 had given the mandate to launch the civil disobedience movement along with the non-payment of taxes.

• Mahatma Gandhi presented his 11 demands to the Viceroy Lord Irwin and gave him the ultimate of January 31, 1932, to accept his 11 demands.

• In Tamil Nadu, C. Rajgopalchari led a march similar to the Dandi march from Trichinopoly to Vedaranyam.

• In Dharsana, in Gujarat, Sarojini Naidu, led non-violent satyagrahis in a march to the salt depots owned by the government.

• Khudai Khidmatgars movement, led by Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, also known as Badshah Khan and the “Frontier Gandhi,” nonviolently mobilized to oppose the British in India’s Northwest Frontier Province.

FAQs

Question / Answers

Which of the following was one of the eleven demands of MK Gandhi before the Civil Disobedience Movement?

A. Reduce expenditure on the military and civil administration by 50 per cent.
B. Change Arms Act allowing popular control of the issue of firearms licences
C. Only A
D. Both A & B
Ans. D

Who led a salt march from Trichinopoly to Vedaranniyam on the Tanjore coast in Tamil Nadu?

A. Surya Sen
B. K Kelappan
C. P Krishna Pillai
D. C. Rajagopalachari
And. D

In which of the following session Indian National Congress passed the resolution of Fundamental Rights and the Economic Policy?

In which of the following session Indian National Congress passed the resolution of Fundamental Rights and the Economic Policy?

A. Karachi Session of March 1931
B. Bombay Session of August 1942
C. Delhi Session of September 1938
D. Lahore Session of July 1930
Ans. A

• Key concept: Surat Split • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

The Extremists wanted the 1907 session to be held in Nagpur (Central Provinces) with Tilak or Lajpat Rai as the president and reiteration of the swadeshi movement.

The Moderates wanted the session at Surat to exclude Tilak from the presidency since a leader from the host province could not be session president (Surat being in Tilak’s home province of Bombay). Instead, they wanted Rashbehari Ghosh as the president and sought to drop the resolutions on the swadeshi, boycott and national education.

The split became inevitable, and the Congress was now dominated by the Moderates who lost no time in reiterating Congress's commitment to the goal of self-government within the British Empire.

FAQs

• Key concept: CALCUTTA SESSION, 1906 • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

At the Calcutta session of the Congress in December 1906, the Extremists wanted either Tilak or Lajpat Rai as the president, while the Moderates proposed the name of Dadabhai Naoroji, who was widely respected by all the nationalists. Finally, Dadabhai Naoroji was elected as the president.

The goal of the Indian National Congress was defined as swarajya or self-government like the United Kingdom or the colonies’.

The word swaraj was mentioned for the first time, but its connotation was not spelt out, which left the field open for differing interpretations by the Moderates and the Extremists.

The Moderates, encouraged by the news of council reforms, decided to tone down the Calcutta programme.

FAQs

• Key concept: Rowlatt Act 1919 • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

It was officially called the Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act, but is popularly known as the Rowlatt Act.

It was based on the recommendations made by the Rowlatt Commission to investigate the ‘seditious conspiracy’ of the Indian people.

The committee had recommended that activists should be deported or imprisoned without trial for two years and that even possession of seditious newspapers would be adequate evidence of guilt.

Mahatma Gandhi called the Rowlatt Act the “Black Act”.

Gandhi organized a Satyagraha Sabha.

The forms of protest finally chosen included observance of a nationwide hartal (strike) accompanied by fasting and prayer, civil disobedience against specific laws, and courting arrest and imprisonment.

FAQs

• Key concept: LORD LINLITHGOW (1936-44) • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

During the period of Linlithgow, parts of the Government of India Act 1935 came into force in 1937. Other events included – Resignation of Congress Ministries to protest the involvement of Indians in world war-II; the Start of World War II (1939), the resignation of Subhash Chandra Bose and the foundation of “Forward Block”; Escape of SC Bose from India, Jinnah’s two nations theory; Atlanta Charter; August Offer (1940); Foundation of Indian National Army; Cripps Mission (1942); Launch of Quit India Movement; Demand of divide and quit; Bengal Famine of 1943).

Important Events:

• 1st General election

• Formation of Forward Block

• Lahore resolution by Muslim League

• August Offer by the viceroy

• Winston Churchill PM of England

• Organisation of Indian National Army

• Cripps Mission Plan rejected

• Ouit India Resolution passed by Congress

FAQs

• Key concept: LORD IRWIN • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

Viceroy of British India from 1926 to 1931.

• Simon Commission (1928)
• Nehru Report (1928)
• Jinnah’s 14 Points
• Murder of Saunders in 1929
• Harcourt Butler Indian States Commission
• Demand for Poorna Swarajya in Lahore session
• Dandi March (1930)
• Deepavali Declaration-Irwin
• Sharda act,1929 girls marriageable age 18 & boys 18.

Other important events during Irvin's time are the Bomb thrown in Assembly Hall in Delhi by Bhagat Singh, the Foundation of HSRA, the Death of Lala Lajpat Rai, the execution of Bhagat Singh, Rajguru and Sukhdev (1931), Chittagong Armoury Raid (1930), Civil Disobedience Movement, Dandi March (1930), First Round Table Conference in London and Gandhi Irwin Pact.

FAQs

• Key concept: Lord Chelmsford • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

Viceroy of India from 1916 to 1921

Born	12 August 1868, London, United Kingdom
Died	1 April 1933, London, United Kingdom
Nationality	British
Party	Conservative Party

Chelmsford, Lord (1868-1933) was the Viceroy and Governor General of India from 1916 to 1921. Born on 12 August 1868 he was educated at Winchester and Magdalen College, Oxford. He succeeded to Baronage in 1905 and served as governor of Queensland (1905-1909) and New South Wales (1909-1913) in Australia. In 1916 he succeeded Lord Hardinge as the Viceroy of India. His period in India began under the shadow of the defeat of the British army in Mesopotamia and Indian discontent as the First World War progressed. In response to Indian loyalty to British war efforts, Edwin Montagu, the Secretary of State for India, declared in the House of Commons that the ultimate aim of the British government in India was 'the progressive realisation of responsible government in India'.

Chelmsford along with the Secretary of State began in the last year of the war to work on the promised reforms. The Montagu-Chelmsford report, published in 1918, was incorporated into the Government of India Act, 1919 recommending limited representative government and a divided control in the administration of the provinces, creating what was known as dyarchy. The proposed reforms came into operation in 1921 immediately before the expiry of Chelmsford’s term of office. But these reforms did not appease the nationalist leaders of India; political unrest, therefore, became widespread which might have been avoided by following a prudent policy.

But Chelmsford took a very unwise step and appointed Justice Rawlatt as chairman of a committee to look into the state of affairs. On the recommendation of the committee, the government passed the Rawlatt Act in 1919 which empowered the judges to try political cases without the assistance of juries and gave provincial government wide powers to arrest for political offences. The situation worsened when the Act was given effect to and people became restive to protesting such punitive laws. The government pronounced Martial law in a number of places including the Punjab where the Lieutenant Governor, Michael O'dyer and the GOC, General Dyer, committed severe atrocities.

A peaceful crowd, which had met at Jallianwala Bag in Amritsar to attend a political meeting, was mown down by machine guns. Elsewhere people were subjected to humiliating penalties like public flogging and crawling in the dust under the hot sun. Chelmsford practically did nothing to stop these punitive measures, repress the offenders and redress the cruelty committed.

This attitude alienated Indian feelings and Chelmsford was recalled in 1921. He created a Viscount in the same year and served MacDonald's Labour Government as the first lord of the admiralty in 1924. He died on 1 April 1933. 

What did Lord Chelmsford do in India?

• Home Rule League formed.

• Montagu’s August Declaration

• Govt of India Act 1919

• Rowlatt Act 1919

• Women University at Poona

• Saddler’s Commission- Educational reforms

• SP Sinha as Governor as Bihar.

FAQs

• Key concept: Lord Hardinge (Viceroy of India from 1910 - 1916) • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

Viceroy of India from 1910 - 1916

Full name:	Charles Hardinge, 1st Baron Hardinge of Penshurst
Born:	20 June 1858, London, United Kingdom
Died:	2 August 1944, Penshurst, United Kingdom

• Creation of Bengal Presidency
• Capital transferred from Calcutta to Delhi (1911)
• Hindu Mahasabha by Madan Mohan Malaviya
• Coronation Durbar of King George V held in Delhi
• Bihar and Orissa separated from Bengal (1911)

FAQs

• Key concept: Lord Curzon (Viceroy of India 1899-1905) • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

Born in 1859 into British nobility, Curzon was educated at the elite Eton College school and attended Oxford. In 1891, he became Under-Secretary of State for India (the deputy minister in the British cabinet responsible for India). He became the youngest Viceroy of India in 1899 at age 39, and remained in office until his resignation in 1905.

• Police Commission - Sir Ander Frazer
• University Commission- Thomas Railey
• Famine Commission-Macdonell
• Indian University act passed
• Paper coinage & Indian Currency Act & put Indian currency on gold standard.
• Dept of Commerce & Industry
• Calcutta Corporation Act
• Ancient Monuments Preservations Act (1904)
• Partition of Bengal
• Curzon-Kitchener controversy
• Younghusband’s Mission to Tibet.

FAQs

• Key concept: Lord Lansdowne (Viceroy of India 1888-94) • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

• Factory Act 1891
• Indian Councils Act, 1892
• Civil services are categorized as Imperial, provincial & subordinate.
• Age of Consent act- girls' marriage age at 12
• Durand Commission- India Afghanistan Line.

FAQs

• Key concept: Lord Ripon (Viceroy of India: 1880-84) • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

• 1st Factory Act to improve labour conditions.
• Vernacular Press Act repealed
• Financial decentralization
• Resolution on LSG(Father)
• Education Commission- William Hunter (1882)
• Ilbert Bill: a controversial measure proposed in 1883 that sought to allow senior Indian magistrates to preside over cases involving British subjects in India. The bill, severely weakened by compromise, was enacted by the Indian Legislative Council on Jan.
• 1st official census in India
• Famine Code adopted.
• Punjab University was founded.
• Rendition of Mysore

Local Self Government (Resolution of 1882)

Lord Ripon is known to have granted the Indians the first taste of freedom by introducing the Local Self Government in 1882. His scheme of local self-government developed the Municipal institutions which had been growing up in the country ever since India was occupied by the British Crown. He led a series of enactments in which larger powers of the Local self-government were given to the rural and urban bodies and the elective people received some wider rights.

Lord Ripon is known as the Father of Local Self Government in India. This was not enacted by any act; it was a resolution that was passed in 1882.

FAQs

• Key concept: List of Viceroys in India (1858 to 1947) • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

The Revolt Of 1857 or the First War Of Independence was the immediate cause for the Act Of Good Governance 1858.  It means the control of Indian rule was transferred to the British Crown. 

List of British Viceroys during British India (1858-1947)

#	Viceroy	Tenure	Achievement / Important Events
1	Lord Canning	1858-1862	1. Queen Victoria’s proclamation and India Act of 1858 2. White Mutiny 3. Indian Councils Act of 1861 4. Indian Penal Code in 1860 5. Suppressed Wahabis movement
2	Lord Elgin	1862 – 1863	Wahabi Movement
3	Lord Lawrence	1864 – 1869	Bhutan War ( 1865) Establishment of High Courts at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras in 1865
4	Lord Mayo	1869 – 1872	- Financial Distribution between centre and state introduced for the first time - First Census in 1872 - Mayo College for the royal elite was set up - Lord Mayo was the only Governor-General who was killed in India. - He was killed by Sher Ali Afridi in Port Blair - Establishment of Statistical Survey of India -  Dept. of Agriculture and Commerce - State railways
5	Lord Northbrook	1872 – 1876	- Civil Marriage and Arya Samaj marriage introduced - Universal Marriage Act was introduced in 1872 - Intercaste Marriage allowed - Kuka Movement in Punjab
6	Lord Lytton	1876 – 1880	- Royal Titles Act of 1876 - Vernacular Press Act, 1878 - Arms Act, 1878 - Nationalist view – Due to High rate of taxation purchasing power had reduced. Government view – Drought is natural phenomena due to which people become poor - Ignored severe famine and organized durbar. Proclaimed Queen Victoria “The Empress of India” - Abolished tax on cotton for British traders - Maximum age to take up the civil services exam lowered from 21 to 19 - Second Afghan War (1878-80) - Appointment of first famine commission in 1878
7	Lord Ripon	1880 – 1884	- Was the most loved Governor-General - Repealed the controversial Arms and Vernacular press act - First Factory Act and First census - Set up Local self-governments – Panchayats and Municipal Boards due to which he was known as Father of Self Government - 2 new universities opened – Punjab University 1884, Allahabad University 1887 - Illbert Bill – Indian judge cannot try English Judge - Appointment of Hunter Commission on Education - Division finances of the centre in 1882
8	Lord Dufferin	1884 – 1888	- III Anglo-­‐Burmese war (1885-­‐1886) - Indian National Congress was founded in 1885
9	Lord Lansdowne	1888 – 1894	- Indian Councils Act, 1892 (Indirect election was introduced for the first time) - Factory Act, 1891 - Division of Civil services into Imperial, Provincial and Subordinate - Appointment of Durand Commission and its definition of Durand line between India (Now Pakistan) and Afghanistan
10	Lord Elgin II	1894 – 1899	- First British Officer called Rands was killed. He was killed by Chapekar (Ramkrishna & Damodar) Brothers. This was the first political murder.
11	Lord Curzon	1899 – 1905	- Indian Universities act – to control Indian Universities - Ancient Monuments Preservation Act of 1904 - Establishment of Agriculture research Institute at Pusa in Bihar - Thomas Raleigh Commission - Partition of Bengal - Curzon-Kitchener controversy
12	Lord Minto II	1905 – 1910	- Anti Partition and swadeshi movements - Surat session and Split in the congress - Morley – Minto reforms - Foundation of Muslim League by Aga Khan Nawab of Dacca in 1906
13	Lord Hardinge II	1910 – 1916	- Mesopotamian Campaign - Annulment of partion of Bengal - Transfer of Capital from Calcutta to Delhi - Hindu Mahasabha was established by Madan Mohan Malaviya in 1915 - Death of G.K. Gokhale in 1915
14	Lord Chelmsford	1916 – 1921	- Return of Ghandhji - Home Rule League Movements - Luknow Session and reunion of congress in 1916 - Lucknow pact in 1916 by the efforts of B.G.Tilak - August Declaration of Montague - Formation of Indian Liberal Federation by S.N.Banerjee - Jallian Walla Bagh Massacre (13 April 1919) - Khilafat movement (1919-20) - Rowlatt Act was passed - Montague – Chelmsford reform was passed - Appointment of Sir S.P.Sinha as Lieutenant Governor of Bihar (First Indian)
15	Lord Reading	1921 – 1926	- Formation of Swaraj party by C.R.Das Motilal Nehru in Dec 1922 - Chauri – Chaura incident took place - Foundation of Rashtriya Swayam Sevak Sangh (RSS) by K.B.Hedgewar (1925) - Repeal of Rowlatt Act - Holding of simultaneous examinations in India and England - Beginning of Indianisation of officer’s cadre of the Indian Army.
16	Lord Irwin	1926 – 1931	- Simon commission and its Boycott - Harcourt Butler Indian States commission (1927) - Nehru report and its rejection by Muslim League & Hindu Mahasabha etc. - Deepavali declaration - Lahore session (1929) - Poornaswaraj declaration - Launch of civil disobedience movement and Dandi march - First round table conference was held - Gandi Irwin Pact
17	Lord Willingdon	1931 – 1936	- Second & Third Round Table Conference - Communal award (1932) by Ramsay Mac Donald - Poona pact between Gandhi and Ambedkar(1932) - Govt. of India Act 1935 - Foundation of Socialist Party by Acharya Narendra Dev and Jai Prakash Narayan (1934) - Communal award was started
18	Lord Linlithgow	1936 – 1944	- Formation of congress ministries - Resignation of Subash Chandra Bose from the President ship of congress - Formation of Forward Block - August offer by Linlithgow and its rejection by congress - Deliverance day by Muslim League (1939) - Cripps Mission - Quit India movement
19	Lord Wavell	1944 – 1947	- CR Formula 1944 - Formation of Interim Government and Launching of Direct Action Day - INA Trials - Naval Mutiny (1946) - Cabinet Mission ( Lawrence, Cripps and Alexander) - Wavell Plan & Shimla conference
20	Lord Mountbatten	1947-48	- June 3rd Plan - Partition of India and Independence - Last Viceroy and First Governor-General of free India

Above the list of British Viceroys in British India will be helpful for the aspirants of the competitive exams like UPSC/PCS/SSC/CDS etc.

FAQs

• Key concept: Lord Lytton (Viceory of India: 1876-80) • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

Born:	8 November 1831, United Kingdom
Died:	24 November 1891, Paris, France

Important Works

– Royal Titles Act of 1876
– Vernacular Press Act, 1878
– Arms Act, 1878
– Nationalist view – Due to the High rate of taxation purchasing power had reduced. Government view – Drought is natural phenomenon due to which people become poor
– Ignored severe famine and organized durbar. Proclaimed Queen Victoria “The Empress of India”
– Abolished tax on cotton for British traders
– Maximum age to take up the civil services exam lowered from 21 to 19
– Second Afghan War (1878-80)
– Appointment of the first famine commission in 1878

FAQs

• Key concept: Lord Mayo (Viceroy of India: 1869 - 1872) • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

Lord Mayo was the 4th Viceroy of India. Richard Southwell Bourke, 6th Earl of Mayo, was an Irish statesman who served as Viceroy of India from 1869 until his assassination in 1872. The local Indians referred to him as Lord Mayo.

Born:	21 February 1822, Dublin, Ireland
Assassinated:	8 February 1872, Port Blair

- Financial Distribution between centre and state was introduced for the first time
- First Census in 1872
- Mayo College for the royal elite was set up: Mayo College was established at Ajmer in 1875 for the education of young Rajput princes. Colonel Sir Oliver St John became its first Principal.
- Lord Mayo was the only Governor-General who was killed in India.
- He was killed by Sher Ali Afridi in Port Blair
- Establishment of Statistical Survey of India
-  Dept. of Agriculture and Commerce
- State railways

Assassination

In 1872, while inspecting the convict settlement in Port Blair, Andaman Islands, he was assassinated by Sher Ali Afridi, an Afghan convict who used a knife. Mayo's body was returned to Ireland and buried near his home at Palmerstown House in the medieval ruined church of Johnstown, County Kildare. On March 11, 1872, Afridi was hanged.

As a result of his assassination, there were more calls for the establishment of an intelligence bureau in India to aid in the tracking down of fugitives or anyone else considered a subversive element by the British colonial authorities.

FAQs

• Key concept: Lord Canning (Viceroy of India: 1856-62) • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

Charles Canning (14 December 1812 – 17 June 1862), also known as Viscount Canning and Clemency Canning, was a British statesman and Governor-General of India during the Indian Rebellion of 1857, as well as the first Viceroy of India after the East India Company was transferred to the Crown of Queen Victoria in 1858 after the rebellion was crushed. 

Born:	14 December 1812, Brompton, London
Died:	17 June 1862, Grosvenor Square, London, United Kingdom

What was Lord Canning's notable work?

After the British East India Company was transferred to the crown, Canning presided over the reform of the Indian administration. In 1859, he has bestowed an earldom. He reformed his executive council under the Indian Councils Act of 1861, establishing departmental responsibility allocation

The most significant event during his administration was the outbreak of the sepoy revolt, 1857. Lord Canning suppressed it and the Parliamentary Act of 1858 followed the event. By the Proclamation of the Queen, the east india company's rule ended and the Crown of England took over the government of India. Though he meted out punishment to those who had taken part in the uprising, yet he avoided indiscriminate vengeance on the Indians as far as possible and thus earned the title of 'Clemency Canning'. He restored law and order in an effective way and introduced a reform in the administration.

What are some of the major reforms under Lord Canning?

1. Queen Victoria’s proclamation and India Act of 1858
2. White Mutiny
3. Indian Councils Act of 1861
4. Indian Penal Code in 1860
5. Suppressed Wahabis movement

FAQs

• Key concept: LORD DALHOUSIE (Governor-General of India: 1848-56) • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

Lord Dalhousie, Governor-General of India from 1848 to 1856 was born on 22 April 1812. He introduced the Doctrine of Lapse policy which turned out to be one of the major causes of the Revolt of 1857. This article helps you learn more about the policies implemented by Lord Dalhousie in India.

He introduced passenger trains in railways, the electric telegraph and uniform postage, which he described as the "three great engines of social improvement". He also founded the Public Works Department in India.

Full name:	James Andrew Broun-Ramsay
Born:	22 April 1812, Dalhousie Castle Hotel And Aqueous Spa, United Kingdom
Died:	19 December 1860, Dalhousie Castle Hotel And Aqueous Spa, United Kingdom
Organizations founded:	Tamil Nadu Public Works Department, Central Public Works Department

Major Works:

• 2nd Anglo Sikh War (1848-49) & Punjab annexation.

• Annexation of lower Burma or Pega (1852)

• 2nd Anglo Burmese War

• Santhal Uprisings

• Doctrine of Lapse and annexation of Satara (1848), Jaitpur & Sambhalpur (1849), Udaipur (1852), Jhansi (1853), Nagpur & Awadh (54 & 56)

• Bombay & Thane Railway

• English schools and college. (Wood’s despatch)

• Telegraph lines from Bombay to Calcutta & Madras to Peshawar.

• Ganga Canal declared open.

• Widow Remarriage Act 1856

• Public Works Dept in every province.

• Abolished titles & pensions.

• Engineering College at Roorkee

FAQs

• Key concept: WILLIAM BENTICK (Governor-General of India: 1828-35) • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

Full name:	William Henry Cavendish-Bentinck
Born:	14 September 1774, Buckinghamshire, United Kingdom
Died:	17 June 1839, Paris, France
Previous offices:	Governor-General of India (1828–1835), Governor of Madras (1803–1807)
Organizations founded:	Medical College Kolkata, Rajshahi Collegiate School

Major Works of WILLIAM BENTICK

• 1st GG of India.

• Abolition of Sati & others

• Suppression of thugi (1830)

• Charter Act 1833

• Edu. Reforms and English as the official language

• Annexation of : Mysore (1831), Coorg (1834), Central Cachar (1834)

• Perpetual friendship with Ranjeet Singh.

• Abolition of provincial courts of appeal and circuit of 2.

• 1st Medical College of India.

FAQs

• Key concept: LORD HASTINGS (Governor General of British India:1813-1823) • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

Full Name	Francis Rawdon-Hastings, 1st Marquess of Hastings
Born:	9 December 1754 County Down, Kingdom of Ireland
Died:	28 November 1826 (aged 71) At sea off Naples
Office	Governor General of British India:1813-1823

Notable Works of Lord Hastings

• Anglo-Nepal War (1814-16) & Treaty of Sagauli.

• 3rd Maratha War (1817-19) and of Maratha Confederacy dissolution.

• Strife with Pindaris (1817-18)

• Treaty with Sindhia (1817)

• Treaty of Sangli (1816)

• Treaty of Poona (1817)

• Ryotwari System - Thomas Munro (Gov. of Madras) (1820)

FAQs

• Key concept: LORD WELLESLEY (Governor General of British India:1813-1823) • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

Born:	20 June 1760, Dangan Castle, Ireland
Died:	26 September 1842, Knightsbridge, London, United Kingdom
Previous offices:	Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (1821–1828), Governor-General of India (1798–1805)
Organization founded:	Fort William College

Important Works

• Subsidiary alliance system with Hyderabad Nizam

• 4th Mysore War (1799)

• 2nd Maratha War (1803-05)

• Took over Tanjore (1799), Surat (1800), and Carnatic (1801)

• Treaty of Bassein (1802)

• Fort William College in Calcutta

• Famous as Bengal Tiger

FAQs

• Key concept: WARREN HASTINGS (Governor General of British India: 1773-85) • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

Born:	6 December 1732, Churchill, United Kingdom
Died:	22 August 1818, Daylesford, United Kingdom
Offices:	Governor General of British India from 1773 to 1785

Warren Hastings – Brief Introduction

1. Warren Hastings (1732 – 1818) became the first Governor of the Presidency of Fort William (Bengal) in 1772 and the first Governor-General of Bengal in 1774 till he resigned in 1785.
2. He started his career as a writer (clerk) in the East India Company at Calcutta in 1750.
3. In 1758, he became the British resident at Murshidabad, the capital of Bengal, after Mir Jafar was installed as the Nawab after the Battle of Plassey.
4. During his term, the First Anglo-Maratha war and the second Anglo-Mysore war were fought.
5. The Regulating Act of 1773 was passed during his term.
6. He supported Sir William Jones in the formation of the Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1785.

Important Works

• Regulating Act 1773
• Pitts Act 1784
• Rohilla War 1774
• 1st Maratha war 1775-82 and Treaty of Salbai 1782
• 2nd Mysore War 1780-84 & Treaty of Mangalore
• Abolished dual system of admin
• Divided Bengal in districts and appointed collectors & revenue officials
• Diwani & Faujdari Adalat
• Asiatic Society of Bengal 1784
• Wrote introduction to 1st English translation of Gita by Charles Wilkins.
• Deprived Jamindars of judicial power & records mandatory.

FAQs

• Key concept: 3rd Round Table Conference • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

The third Round Table Conference, held between November 17, 1932, and December 24, 1932, was not attended by the Indian National Congress and Gandhi. It was ignored by most other Indian leaders.

Apart from princely states representatives like Aga Khan III, B.R. Ambedkar, Muhammad Iqbal, M.R. Jayakar, N.M. Joshi etc. was present.

Again, like in the two previous conferences, little was achieved. The recommendations were published in a White Paper in March 1933 and debated in the British Parliament afterwards based on which Government of India Act 1935 was enacted.

B.R. Ambedkar attended all three round table conferences.

Following the publication of the Communal Award, the third Session, or “the Pocket” R.T.C. met in London to discuss a fixed agenda in private

Also, After the failure of the second Round Table Conference, the Congress Working Committee decided on December 29, 1931, to resume the civil disobedience movement

Participants of the Second Round table conference

• British delegates belonging to various political parties including the British Prime
  Minister, James Ramsay Macdonald.
• Indian princely states are represented by Maharajas, princes and divans.
• British Indians are represented by:
  Indian National Congress (INC) – Mahatma Gandhi, Rangaswami Iyengar, Madan
  Mohan Malaviya
• Muslims – Md. Ali Jinnah, Aga Khan III, Muhammad Iqbal, etc.
• Hindus – M R Jayakar, etc.
• Depressed classes – Dr B R Ambedkar
• Women – Sarojini Naidu, etc.
• Liberals, Justice Party, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Parsis, Europeans, Anglo-Indians,
  industry, labour, landlords, Burma, Sindh and other provinces.

Outcome

After the Third Round Table Conference, the British government prepared a White Paper on the new constitution of India. The White Paper, published in March 1933 contained four major proposals—Federation, Provincial Autonomy (responsible government in provinces), dyarchy at the centre and safeguards that vested special powers in the central and provincial executive. The Paper was criticised by all Indian parties as it fell short of complete independence.

Consequently, a Joint Select Committee was appointed under the chairmanship of the Marquess of Linlithgow. In November 1934, the Committee produced a majority report. On the basis of this report, a bill was introduced in the British Parliament which was passed by a substantial majority. On receiving the Royal assent on 2 August 1955, it became the famous Government of India Act of 1935

FAQs

Further Reading:

• 1st Round Table Conference
• 2nd Round Table Conference

• Key concept: 2nd Round Table Conference • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

The Second Round Table Conference was held in London from September 7, 1931, to December 1, 1931. By this time, Lord Irwin had been replaced by Lord Willingdon as viceroy in India.

The Indian National Congress nominated Gandhi as its sole representative.

There were a large number of Indian participants, besides the Congress. The Princely States, Muslim League, Justice Party, Hindu Mahasabha etc. attended it.

The session got deadlocked on the question of the minorities. Separate electorates were being demanded by the Muslims, depressed classes, Christians and Anglo-Indians.

The government refused to concede the basic Indian demand of freedom. Gandhi returned to India and gave a call to resume the Civil Disobedience Movement.

FAQs

Further Reading:

• 1st Round Table Conference
• 3rd Round Table Conference
• Read 2nd Round Table Conference in Marathi (दुसरी गोलमेज परिषद)

• Key concept: 1st Round Table Conference • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

The first Round Table Conference was held in London between November 1930 and January 1931 and was chaired by Ramsay MacDonald.

This was the first conference arranged between the British and the Indians as equals.

The Congress and some prominent business leaders refused to attend it.

The Princely States, Muslim League, Justice Party, Hindu Mahasabha etc. attended it.

Nothing much was achieved at the conference. The British government realized that the participation of the Indian National Congress was necessary in any discussion on the future of constitutional government in India.

FAQs

Further Reading:

• 2nd Round Table Conference
• 3rd Round Table Conference
• Read 1st Round Table Conference in Marathi (पहिली गोलमेज परिषद (१९३०-३१)

• Key concept: Treaty of Salbai (1782) • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

The Treaty of Salbai, which ended the First Anglo-Maratha War, was signed on 17 May 1782 between the British East India Company and the Marathas.

Salbai is situated in Gwalior District, Madhya Pradesh. Maratha Ruler Mahadaji Sindhia made an agreement with the English in October 1781 by which he agreed to negotiate with the Poona Council for a treaty with the English. The negotiations started in early 1782. According to the terms of the treaty, the English retained Salsette, an island in Maharashtra, Mahadaji Sindhia got back all his territory west of the river Yamuna., and both parties returned to each other's territory conquered during the course of the war in South India. The treaty of Salbai formed a turning point in the history of English rule in India. While the English only gained the island of Salsette, it emboldened the British, as they had gained the upper edge against the strongest power in India, at that point in time.

• It marked the end of the first phase of the struggle between the Marathas and the British.
• The Treaty of Salbai was signed in May 1782; it was ratified by Hastings in June 1782. The treaty guaranteed peace between the two sides for twenty years.
• The main provisions of the Treaty of Salbai were:
• Salsette should continue in the possession of the English.
• The whole of the territory conquered since the Treaty of Purandhar (1776) including Bassein should be restored to the Marathas.
• The English should not offer any further support to Raghunathrao and the Peshwa should grant him a maintenance allowance.
• The Peshwa should not support any other European nation.

FAQs

• Key concept: THIRD CARNATIC WAR (1758-63) • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

It was an echo of the Anglo-French struggle in Europe. In Europe, when Austria wanted to recover Silesia in 1756, the Seven Year's War (1756-63) started. Britain and France were once again on opposite sides.

It was a decisive war known for the Battle of Wandiwash which was won by the British in 1760.

Although the Treaty of Peace of Paris (1763) restored to the French their factories in India, the French political influence disappeared after the war. Thereafter, the French, like their Portuguese and Dutch counterparts in India, confined themselves to their small enclaves and to commerce.

Battle of Wandiwash

• The Battle of Wandiwash took place in 1760 in India between the French and the British.
• The battle took place as part of the Third Carnatic War, which was fought between the French and British colonial empires and was part of the worldwide Seven Years' War.
• It happened at Vandavasi, Tamil Nadu. After making significant advances in Bengal and Hyderabad, the British were well-equipped to meet the French at Wandiwash, whom they destroyed.
• The English won the crucial battle of the Third Carnatic War on January 22, 1760 at Wandiwash (or Vandavasi) in Tamil Nadu.
• The French, led by Comte de Lally, were hampered by a lack of naval support and finances, so they sought to retake Vandavasi, now in Tamil Nadu.
• While attempting to do so, they were assaulted by British forces led by Sir Eyre Coote, and the French were decisively destroyed in the subsequent fight.
• As a result of the fight, the French in South India were confined to Pondicherry, where they surrendered on 22 January 1761, under the command of commander Marquis de Bussy-Castelnau.
• One of the factors that prompted France to sign the Treaty of Paris was the collapse of the French position in India, which reduced the French to nothing more than traders in that nation and ultimately ended further French imperial ambitions in that country.
• Britain, on the other hand, consolidated its dominance over other European nations in India during this conflict.

FAQs

Further Reading:

• FIRST CARNATIC WAR (1746–48)
• SECOND CARNATIC WAR (1749-54)

• Key concept: SECOND CARNATIC WAR (1749-54) • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

The Second Carnatic War (1749-54) was a power struggle between various contenders to the positions of Nizam of Hyderabad and Nawab of the Carnatic, with each claimant backed by the British or the French.

The background for the Second Carnatic War was provided by rivalry in India.

The death of Nizam-ul-Mulk, the founder of the independent kingdom of Hyderabad, in 1748, provided an opportunity for both the French and British to meddle with internal affairs and strengthen their hold thus leading to the Second Carnatic War.

Although inconclusive, it undermined the French power in South India vis-àvis the English.

FAQs

Further Reading:

• FIRST CARNATIC WAR (1746–48)
• THIRD CARNATIC WAR (1758-63)

• Key concept: FIRST CARNATIC WAR (1746–48) • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

The First Carnatic War was an extension of the Anglo-French War in Europe which was caused by the Austrian War of Succession.

The First Carnatic War ended in 1748 when the Treaty of Aix-La Chappelle was signed bringing the Austrian War of Succession to a conclusion. Under the terms of this treaty, Madras was handed back to the English, and the French, in turn, got their territories in North America.

The First Carnatic War is remembered for the Battle of St. Thome (in Madras) fought between the French forces and the forces of Anwarud- din, the Nawab of Carnatic, to whom the English appealed for help. A small French army defeated the strong Indian army at St. Thome on the banks of the River Adyar.

FAQs

Further Reading:

• SECOND CARNATIC WAR (1749-54)
• THIRD CARNATIC WAR (1758-63)

• Key concept: Francisco De Almeida • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

In 1505, the King of Portugal appointed a governor in India for a three-year term and equipped the incumbent with sufficient force to protect the Portuguese interests.

Francisco De Almeida, the newly appointed governor, was asked to consolidate the position of the Portuguese in India.

Almeida’s vision was to make the Portuguese the master of the Indian Ocean. His policy was known as the ‘Blue Water Policy’ i.e. to be powerful at sea instead of building fortresses on land.

Albuquerque succeeded Almeida as the Portuguese governor in India

FAQs

• Key concept: ALFONSO DE ALBUQUERQUE • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

Albuquerque, who succeeded Almeida as the Portuguese governor in India, was the real founder of the Portuguese power in the East.

His Policy was of dominating entire oriental commerce by setting up forts in strategic places in Asia and Africa supplemented by a strong navy.

He secured for Portugal the strategic control of the Indian Ocean by establishing bases overlooking all the entrances to the sea.

The Portuguese, under Albuquerque, bolstered their stranglehold by introducing a permit system for other ships and exercising control over the major ship-building centres in the region.

He acquired Goa from the Sultan of Bijapur in 1510 with ease. They were also able to blockade and sack the Bijapuri ports of Danda-Rajouri and Dabhol, thus paralysing Bijapur’s sea trade on the mainland.

They established a fort at Colombo in Sri Lanka, at Achin in Sumatra, and the Malacca port which controlled the exit and entry to the narrow gulf between the Malay peninsula and Sumatra.

An interesting feature of his rule was the abolition of sati. He encouraged his men to take Indian wives.

The Portuguese made two attempts in 1520-21 to capture Diu but both were defeated by its governor, Ahmad Ayaz.

FAQs

• Key concept: Wood's Despatch • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

Charles Wood was a British Liberal politician and Member of Parliament. He served as Chancellor of the Exchequer from 1846 to 1852. Later he became the President of the Board of Control of the East India Company. In 1854 he sent the “Wood’s despatch” to Governor General Lord Dalhousie.

In 1854, Charles Wood prepared a despatch on an educational system for India.

Considered the “Magna Carta of English Education in India”, this document was the first comprehensive plan for the spread of education in India.

It recommended English as the medium of instruction for higher studies and vernaculars at the school level.

It laid stress on female and vocational education, and on teachers’ training.

It laid down that the education imparted in government institutions should be secular.

It recommended a system of grants-in-aid to encourage private enterprise.

FAQs

• Key concept: Lord Macaulay’s Minute • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

On 2 February 1835, British historian and politician Thomas Babington Macaulay presented his ‘Minute on Indian Education’ that sought to establish the need to impart English education to Indian ‘natives’.

The famous Lord Macaulay’s Minute settled the row in favour of Anglicists— the limited government resources were to be devoted to the teaching of Western sciences a lone
literature through the medium of the English language alone.

Lord Macaulay held the view that “Indian learning was inferior to European learning”.

The British planned to educate a small section of upper and middle classes, thus creating a class “Indian in blood and colour but English in tastes, in opinions, in morals and in intellect” who would act as interpreters between the government and masses and would enrich the vernaculars by which knowledge of Western sciences and literature would reach the masses. This was called the ‘downward filtration theory'.

FAQs

• Key concept: Nuno Da Cunha: Portuguese Governor in India (1529–1538) • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

Feature	Details
Full Name	Nuno da Cunha
Born	1487, Kingdom of Portugal
Died	1539, near Cape of Good Hope
Tenure	1529 – 1538 (Succeeded Lopo Vaz de Sampaio)
Key Achievement	Shifted Portuguese HQ from Cochin to Goa (1530)

Major Achievements

Nuno da Cunha was the 9th Governor of Portuguese India. His tenure is marked by the territorial expansion of the Portuguese empire along the Western coast of India.

1. Shifting the Capital to Goa (1530)

One of his first major administrative moves was shifting the headquarters of the Portuguese government from Cochin to Goa in 1530. This cemented Goa's status as the political and economic heart of the Portuguese State of India (Estado da Índia).

2. Conflict with Bahadur Shah of Gujarat

The relationship between the Portuguese and Bahadur Shah, the Sultan of Gujarat, was defined by shifting alliances during the Mughal-Gujarat conflict:

• Initial Alliance: In 1534, facing pressure from the Mughal Emperor Humayun, Bahadur Shah signed the Treaty of Bassein, ceding Bassein (Vasai) and its dependencies to the Portuguese.
• Territorial Gains: Under Da Cunha, the Portuguese acquired several strategic points: Daman (1531), Salsette and Bombay (1534), and Diu (1535).
• The Death of Bahadur Shah: After Humayun withdrew from Gujarat in 1536, Bahadur Shah tried to reclaim his influence and opposed the Portuguese building a wall in Diu. In 1537, during negotiations on a Portuguese ship, a scuffle broke out, and Bahadur Shah was killed.

3. Expansion into Bengal (Hooghly)

Da Cunha sought to expand Portuguese commercial interests in Eastern India. He encouraged Portuguese nationals to settle in Bengal and established Hooghly as their primary trade headquarters in the region.

FAQs

Quick Revision: Nuno da Cunha (1529-1538)

Key Event	Year	Significance
Capital Shift	1530	Moved Portuguese HQ from Cochin to Goa.
Treaty of Bassein	1534	Sultan Bahadur Shah ceded Bassein (Vasai) to the Portuguese.
Occupation of Diu	1535	Portuguese gained control of the strategic port of Diu.
Death of Bahadur Shah	1537	Sultan of Gujarat was killed during negotiations on a Portuguese ship.
Bengal Expansion	1530s	Established Hooghly as a Portuguese settlement in Bengal.

UPSC Practice Questions (Prelims Focus)

Q1. Which of the following Portuguese Governors is credited with shifting the headquarters of the Portuguese government in India from Cochin to Goa?

A) Francisco de Almeida
B) Alfonso de Albuquerque
C) Nuno da Cunha
D) Vasco da Gama

Answer: C) Nuno da Cunha (Shifted the capital in 1530).

Q2. Consider the following statements regarding Nuno da Cunha:

1. He acquired Diu and Bassein from the Sultan of Gujarat.
2. He established Hooghly as a Portuguese settlement in Bengal.
3. He was the first Portuguese Governor to implement the 'Blue Water Policy'.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A) 1 and 2 only
B) 2 and 3 only
C) 1 only
D) 1, 2, and 3

Answer: A) 1 and 2 only. (Statement 3 is incorrect; the 'Blue Water Policy' was introduced by Francisco de Almeida).

• Key concept: Timeline of Indian History - Modern India (1707-1947) • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

1707 to 1749

1707	Battle of Jajau, accession of Bahadur Shah I
1708	Death of Guru Gobind Singh
1712	Death of Bahadur Shah I, accession of Jahandar Shah
1713	Accession of  Farukh Siyar, murder of Jahandar Shah
1714	Hussain Ali becomes viceroy of the Deccan Treaty between Hussain Ali and the Marathas
1716	Execution of Banda Bahadur Surman Embassy to the Imperial Court
1717	Emperor Farukh Siyar’s farman to East India Co. Appointment of Murshid Quli Khan as governor of Bengal timeline of indian history
1719	Farukh Siyar put to death Accession and deposition of puppet emperors Accession of Muhammad Shah
1720	Fall of the Sayyid brothers
1724	Appointment of Saadat Khan as governor of Awadh Virtual independence of the Nizam in the Deccan, Appointment of Qamaruddinas wazir
1739	Nadir Shah took Delhi and sacked it Death of Shuja-ud-din, Sarfaraz, as governor of Bengal Capture of Bassein and Salsette by the Marathas
1740	Alivardi Khan became Nawab of Bengal
1742	Marathas invaded Bengal Dupleix as governor of Pondicherry
1744-48	1st Carnatic war (Anglo-French)
1745	War Rohillas in occupation of Rohilkhand
1746	Capture of Madras by La Bourdonnais
1747	Invasion by Ahmad Shah Abdali
1748	Death of Nizam Chinquilich Khan Death of Muhammad Shah, accession of Ahmad Shah
1749	Restoration of Madras to the English
1949-54	2nd Carnatic War

1750 to 1799

1750	Defeat and death of Nizam Nasir Jang, Muzaffar Jung became the Nizam timeline of Indian history
1751	Capture and defence of Arcot by Robert Clive Death of Muzaffar Jang, accession of Salabat Jang as Nizam Conclusion of treaty by Nawab Alivardi Khan with the Marathas by surrendering Cuttack timeline of indian history
1754	Recall of Dupleix, Godehu’s as governor and his treaty with the English. Accession of Alamgir Il
21 April 1756	Death of Alivardi Khan, accession of Siraj-ud-daula
20 June 1756	Capture of Calcutta by Siraj-ud-daula
2 Jan 1757	Recovery of Calcutta by the English
Jan 1757	Delhi and Mathura were sacked by Ahmad Shah Abdali Treaty of Alinagar between Siraj and the English
9 Feb 1757	The capture of Chandannagar by the English
23 June 1757	Battle of Plassey Mir Jafar installed as Nawab
2 July 1757	Capture and execution of Siraj-ud-daula
1748-63	3rd Carnatic War
1758	The arrival of Lally in India Occupation of the Panjab by the Marathas Masulipatnam captured by British Colonel Forde
1759	Battle of Bedara at Chinsurah between British & Dutch Prince Ali Gauhar’s futile invasion of Bihar Emperor Alamgir Il murdered by Ghazi-ud-din
22 Jan 1760	Battle of Wandiwash
1760	Battle of Udgir between the Marathas and the Nizam Installation of Mir Qasim as Nawab of Bengal Vansittart appointed governor in Bengal
14 Jan 1761	3rd battle of Panipat Surrender of Pondicherry to the English Accession of Ali Gauhar as Emperor Shah Alam Il Appointment of Shujauddaula as wazir Haider Ali king of Mysore
1763	Mir Qasim drove out of Bengal and Bihar
21 Oct 1764	Battle of Buxar
1765 12 Aug 1765	Death of Mir Jafar 2nd governorship of Clive in Bengal Treaty of Allahabad – Shah Alam II & Company Grant of the diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa
1766	Acquisition by the Company of the Northern Circars
1766-69	1st Mysore War
1767	Departure of Clive, Verelest as governor in Bengal
1769	The Great Bengal Famine
1772	Death of Peshwa Madhava Rao Accession and murder of Peshwa Narayan Rao
1773	Enactment of the Regulating Act Warren Hastings was appointed governor of Bengal Peshwaship of Raghunath Rao or Raghoba
1774	Accession of Narayan Rao as peshwa Rohilla War Establishment of Supreme Court in Calcutta
1775	Trial and execution of Nanda Kumar
1775-82	1st Anglo – Maratha War
1776	Treaty of Purandhar between Peshwa and British
1779	Convention of Wadgaon between Maratha and British
1780	Gwalior captured by General Popham
1780-84	2nd Anglo – Mysore War
1781	Deposition of Chait Singh – Ruler of Benares Amendment of the Regulating Act
1782	Affair of the Begums of Oudh Treaty of Salbai Death of Haider Ali
1783	Fox’s India Bill – abolition of the Court of Directors and the Court of Proprietors
1784	Treaty of Mangalore closed the 2nd Mysore War Pitt’s India Act
1786	Lord Cornwallis appointed governor general
1790-92	3rd Anglo – Mysore War Treaty of Seringapatnam
1792	Ranjit Singh became the leader of a Sikh misl
1793	Permanent Settlement of land revenue in Bengal Charter Act of 1793 Sir John Shore—governor general
1794	Death of Mahadji Sindhia – ruler of Gwalior
1795	Battle of Kharda between Nizam and Maratha Death of Ahalya Bai
1796	Death of Peshwa Madhav Rao Narayan Baji Rao Il became the last Peshwa
1797	Zaman Shah in the Punjab Death of Nawab Asaf-ud-daula of Awadh
1798	Lord Wellesley governor general Acceptance of Subsidiary Alliance by the Nizam
1798-99	4th Anglo – Mysore War
1799	Death of Tipu and fall of Seringapatnam Partition of Mysore and installation of the Hindu Raja’s family in Mysore Ranjit Singh appointed governor of Lahore by Zaman Shah Malcolm led English mission to Persia Baptist Mission established at Serampore by William Carey

1800 to 1825

1800	Death of Nana Fadnavis
1801	Carnatic annexed to the British empire
1802	Battle of Poona between rival Maratha clans Treaty of Bassein between British and Baji Rao II
1803-05	2nd Anglo – Maratha War
1805	Recall of Lord Wellesley 2nd term of Lord Cornwallis as governor-general George Barlow as governor-general
1806	Vellore Mutiny
1807	Lord Minto I became governor-general
1808	British missions under Malcolm to Persia British mission to Kabul under Elphinstone
1809	Treaty of Amritsar between the English and Ranjit Singh
1813	Charter Act – end of companies' monopoly over trade Lord Hastings as governor-general
1814-16	War with Nepal Treaty of Sagauli – established the boundary line of Nepal
1817-18	Pindari war 3rd Anglo – Maratha War Abolition of Peshwaship 1st cotton mill in India, Fort Gloster, Howrah
1819	Protective alliances with the states of Rajputana
1820	Thomas Munro as governor of Madras
1823	Lord Amherst governor general
1824	Barrackpore Mutiny
1824-26	1st Burmese War Treaty of Yandabo Annexation of Assam, Arakan and Tennasserim

1826 to 1849

1826	Fall of Bharatpur
1828	Lord William Bentinck as governor-general
1829	Akbar II, Mughal Emperor of Delhi Bengal Sati Regulation Act, 1829
1829-37	Suppression of Thuggee by Sleeman
1830	Annexation of Cachar Raja Ramohan Roy visited England Mysore rebellion Thuggee and Dacoity Department
1831	Assumption of Mysore administration by the English Journey of Alexander Burnes up the Indus Meeting at Rupar – Ranjit Singh and William Bentinck Death of Henry Louis Vivian Derozio
1832	Annexation of Jaintia
1833	Charter Act 1833 East India Company's monopoly on China trade ends Tea Committee to assess the potential of Assam tea
1834	Annexation of Coorg Institution of law member in Supreme Council with Lord Macaulay as the first incumbent
1835	Foundation of Calcutta Medical College
2 Feb 1835	English Education Act 1835 – Macaulay’s Minute English replace Persian – the official language of India
20 Mar 1835	Charles Metcalfe as governor-general
24 Mar 1835	Abolition of Press restrictions Assam Rifles, was founded in India Lease of the Darjeeling by British from the Kingdom of Sikkim
1836	Lord Auckland as governor-general
1837-38	Famine in North India
1838	Tripartite treaty – English with Shah Shuja and Ranjit Singh
1839	New treaty forced on the Amirs of Sind Death of Ranjit Singh Cyclone hits port city of Coringa Andhra Pradesh, 300,000 people die
1839-42	1st Afghan War 1st Opium War in China
1840	1st tea gardens in at Chittagong
1842	Lord Ellenborough became governor-general Oriental Bank Corporation established in Bombay
1843	War with the Amirs of Sind Annexation of Sind, Battle of Maharajpur between British and Maratha forces in Gwalior Suppression of slavery
1844	Lord Hardinge became governor-general
1845-46	1st Sikh War Treaty of Lahore
1846	Kashmir is ceded to the British East India Company The Koh-i-Noor diamond is surrendered to Queen Victoria
1848	Lord Dalhousie became governor-general Revolt of Mulraj in Punjab The doctrine of Lapse policy started by the British Annexation of Satara
1848-49	2nd Sikh War Annexation of Punjab
1849	Bethune School for girls started in Calcutta Annexation of Jaitpur and Sambalpur Great Indian Peninsula Railway was incorporated

1850 to 1857

1850 Nov 1850	Penal annexation of a part of Sikkim 1st experimental electric telegraph line Calcutta and Diamond Harbour
1851	1st freight train is operated in Roorkee
1852	2nd Burmese War and annexation of Pegu Death of ex-Peshwa Baji Rao II and stoppage of his pension
16 April 1853	1st railway in India from Bombay to Thane, 35 km Laying of telegraph line from Calcutta to Agra Annexation of Nagpur & Jhansi Cession of Berar by the Nizam Charter Act 1853 Entrance into I.C.S. through open to competition
7 July 1854	2nd cotton mill – Bombay Spinning and Weaving Company by Cowasjee Nanabhoy Davar
15 Aug 1854	Education Dispatch of Charles Wood – Wood’s despatch 1st all India stamp issued Calcutta Survey 1st passenger train – Howrah to Hooghly
1855	British annexed Thanjavur Maratha kingdom
1855-57	Santhal rebellion
1856 26 July 1856	Annexation of Oudh Measured height of ‘Peak XV’ – Mount Everest The Indian Universities Act Religious Disabilities Act Lord Canning as Governor General Hindu Widow’s Remarriage Act End of Crimean War General Service Order Persian War 2nd Opium War (1856-60) Introduction of the Enfield rifle
1857	Foundation of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras Universities
1857 – 58	Sepoy Mutiny
29 Mar 1857	Revolt of Mangal Pandey at Barrackpore
10 May	Revolt began at Meerut
11 May	Revolt began in Delhi
20 Sept 1857	British forces recapture Delhi
Jan-Mar 1858	Trial of Emperor Bahadur Shah
June 1858	The last rebels surrender in Gwalior
July 1858	Proclamation of peace by Lord Canning

1858 to 1875

2 Aug 1858	Government of India Act 1858
1 Nov 1858	Darbar was held at Allahabad Queen’s Proclamation – assumed the govt. of India Lord Canning was appointed as 1st Viceroy
1859	Withdrawal of Doctrine of Lapse Execution of Tatya Tope
1859-60	Indigo revolt in Bengal
1860	Enactment of Indian Penal Code
1861	Indian Councils Act High Courts Act Civil Service Act Famine in N.W. India Enactment of the Code of Criminal Procedure Delhi Department of Police is founded
1862	Lord Elgin I as Governor-General
2 July 1862	Establishment of Calcutta High Courts Supreme & Sadar Courts merged into high courts
1863	1st to join Indian Civil Service – Satyendranath Tagore
1864	John Lawrence as Governor-General Shimla was declared the summer capital Bhutan War Indian Forest Service was set up
1865	Orissa famine Opening of telegraphic communication with Europe Indian Forest Acts – British claims over forests in India
1867	Fiscal year April–March
1868	Opening of railway from Ambala to Delhi Bank of Bombay established Tata Group is founded by Jamsetji Tata
1869 2 Oct 1869	Lord Mayo became Viceroy Birth of Gandhiji
1870	Infanticide is banned in India 1st submarine telegraph cable from UK to Bombay
1871	Criminal Tribes Act – hereditary criminals
1872	Murder of Lord Mayo by Sher Ali Afridi in A&N Islands Lord Northbrook appointed viceroy
1873	Famine in Bihar
1874	Agra Canal opens
1875 31 Oct 1975	Deposition of Malhar Rao Gaekwad Birth of Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel Visit of Edward, Prince of Wales

1876 to 1899

1876	Lord Lytton I became viceroy Royal Titles Act Occupation of Quetta Outbreak of famine in the Deccan
1 Jan 1877	2nd Delhi Durbar Queen Victoria proclaimed empress of India
1878  – 80	2nd Afghan War
1878	Vernacular Press Act
1880	Lord Ripon as viceroy
1881	Rendition of Mysore 1st Factory Act 1st General Census
1882	Repeal of Vernacular Press Act Hunter Education Commission
1883	Beginning of local self-government in India Ilbert Bill – allow Indian judges to try Europeans
1884	Lord Dufferin as viceroy
1885	3rd Burmese War
25 Dec 1885	1st meeting of the Indian National Congress Bengal Local Self-Government Act
1886	Annexation of Upper Burma Restoration of Gwalior fort
1888	Lord Lansdowne became viceroy 1st ever temple for the untouchables in Aruvippuram, Kerala
1891	2nd Factory Act Age of Consent Act Anglo-Manipur War
1892	Indian Councils Act
1893	Durand Line – Boundary between British India and Afghanistan Vivekananda in the U.S.A. – World’s Parliament of Religions
1894	Lord Elgin Il as Viceroy Punjab National Bank was founded by Lala Lajpat Rai
1896	Plague epidemic in Bombay  No-tax campaign in Maharashtra by Bal Gangadhar Tilak Famine started in Bundelkhand
1897	Famine Commission Battle of Saragarhi Formation of Indian Education Service
1897-98	Frontier War – Tirah campaign – between British and Afghan
1898	1st volume of the Linguistic Survey of India is published in Calcutta
1899	Lord Curzon became Viceroy

1900 to 1910

1900	Land Alienation Act India’s first participation in the Summer Olympics
1901	Death of Queen Victoria and accession of King Edward VIl North West Frontier Province created
1902	United Provinces of Agra and Oudh is established
1903 – 04	Tibetan expedition – Younghusband mission
1904	Ancient Monuments Preservation Act Indian Universities Act Co-operative Society Act
19 July 1905 16 Oct 1905	Partition of Bengal announced Partition took place Lord Mito II became Viceroy Morely – Secretary of State for India Swadeshi and boycott movement Indian Railway Board founded
1906 30 Dec 1906	Officially adapting of Indian Standard Time Foundation of the Muslim League INC President Dadabhai Naoroji declared ‘Swaraj’
1907 26 Dec 1907	Anglo-Russian Convention Surat split Newspapers Act Tata steel started manufacturing Ani Besant – president of Thiosafical society
12 Mar 1908	Tinnevely riot
May 1908 29 April	Trial of Alipore bomb case (1908-09) Muzaffarpur Conspiracy – Khudiran & P. Chaki
1909	Nasik conspiracy Indian Councils Act (Morley-Minto Reforms) 1st Indian to Viceroy’s Executive Council – S.P Sinha
1910	Lord Hardinge as Viceroy Sri Aurobindo began his spiritual pursuits

1911 to 1919

Feb 1911	1st official air mail flight – Allahabad to Naini
11 Dec 1911	Coronation of George V in New Delhi
12 Dec	Delhi Durbar
12 Dec	Partition of Bengal nullified
12 Dec	Transfer of capital to Delhi announced
27 Dec 1911	Jana Gana Mana – free India’s National Anthem
22 Mar 1912	State of Bihar and Orissa formed out of Bengal
23 Dec 1912	Bomb at Hardinge – Delhi conspiracy case Introduced registration of motor vehicles
15 July 1913	Ghadar Party was founded in Astoria, Oregon Nobel Prize for Rabindranath Tagore Raja Harishchandra – 1st full-length Indian film
4 April 1914	Komagata Maru incident – 4 April to 27 Sept
28 July 1914	1st World War, Declaration of War
26 Sept 1914	Landing of Indian troops in France McMahon Line – Simla Accord
9 Jan 1915	Gandhiji returns to India from South Africa
Feb 1915	Ghadar Mutiny
19 Mar 1915	Defence of India Act
1916	Lord Chelmsford as Viceroy
April 1916	Sadler University Commission
Sept 1916	Home Rule League – Tilak – Belgaum
Sept 1916	Home Rule League – Annie Besant – Madras
Dec 1916	Foundation of the Women’s University at Poona Lucknow Pact – Congress & Muslim League
1917	INC demands self-government for India
April 1917	Champaran Satyagraha
20 Aug 1917	August Declaration, in the British House of Commons
1918	Indians declared eligible for King’s Commission
11 Nov 1918	Indian National Liberal Federation Publication of Montague Chelmsford Report Kheda Satyagraha – 1st Non-Cooperation End of first world war
10 Mar 1919	Rowlatt Act or Black Act
6 April	Rowlatt Satyagraha
9 April	Saifuddin Kitchlew & Dr. Satyapal arrested
13 April 1919	Jallianwala Bagh Massacre in Amritsar, Punjab
14 Oct	Hunter Commission
23 Dec 1919	Government of India Act, 1919

1920 to 1929

July 1920	House of Commons adopts Hunter report
1 Aug 1920	The Khilafat Movement
31 Aug 1920	Death of Bal Gangadhar Tilak Non-cooperation Movement – Nagpur session Lord Sinha – Governor of Bihar and Orissa
1921	Permanent Advisory Council of Princes
July 1921	Moplah or Malabar rebellion
23 Dec	Visit of Edward, Prince of Wales Lord Reading became viceroy Rabindranath founded Visva-Bharati
4 Feb 1922	Chauri Chaura incident
10 Mar 1922	Withdrawal of Non-cooperation Movement
11 Mar	Gandhiji is arrested in Bombay for sedition Peshawar Conspiracy
9 Jan 1923	Foundation of Swaraj Party Certification of Salt Tax Decision to Indianise regiments of Indian army
9 Sept 1924	Kohat riots
4 Dec 1924	Gateway of India in Bombay Vaikom Satyagraha in Kerala
Feb 1925	1st electric train in Bombay
June 1925	Pink’s War in North West Frontier
9 Aug 1925	Death of C R Das Kakori conspiracy – HRA Formation of the Inter-University Board Lord Lytton II became viceroy Dyarchy suspended in Bengal
1926	Lord Irwin as Viceroy Devaluation of the rupee
Nov 1927	Appointment of Simon Commission
3 Feb 1928	Simon Commission reached in Bombay – Hartal
May 1928	Hockey Gold Medal – Amsterdam Olympics
10 Aug 1928	Nehru Report – Lucknow conference of all parties
30 Oct 1928	Simon Commission in Lahore
17 Nov 1928	Lala Lajpat Rai died in a protest Board of Control for Cricket in India is formed
Aug 1929	Meerut Conspiracy Case – (1929-33)
31 Oct 1929	Deepavali Declaration – Irwin
19 Dec	Lahore Session and ‘Poone Swaraj‘ Resolution
31 Dec 1929	Indian flag hoisted by Nehru – Ravi river

1930 to 1940

26 Jan 1930	INC declares day for Poorna Swaraj
12 Mar 1930	Dandi / Salt March started
5 April	Civil Disobedience Movement started at Dandi
18 April 1930	Chittagong armory raid by ‎Surya Sen
23 April	Qissa Khwani Bazaar massacre
30 April	Vedaranyam Salt satyagraha in South India
May 1930	Report of Simon Commission
Oct 1930	Rebellion in Burma
8 Dec 1930	1st Round Table Conference Battle of Writers’ Building
5 Mar 1931	Irwin – Gandhi Pact
23 Mar 1931	Bhagat Singh, Rajguru & Sukhdev were hanged
7 Sept 1931	2nd Round Table Conference Lord Wellington as Viceroy Chakra was adopted in the centre of the flag by INC
May 1932	Riots between Hindus and Muslims in Bombay
16 Aug 1932	Communal Award – Ramsay MacDonald
20 Sept 1932	Gandhiji begins a hunger strike in Poona prison
23 Sept 1932	Pahartali European Club attack – P. Waddedar
24 Sept 1932	Poona Pact – B. R. Ambedkar and Gandhi Foundation of Indian Military Academy
17 Nov 1932	3rd Round Table Conference
28 Jan 1933	Pakistan Declaration published Joint Select Committee on Indian Constitution Gandhi transfers charge of Congress to Nehru
7 April 1934	Civil Disobedience Movement called off
July 1934	Communist Party of India is declared unlawful Factories Act Royal Indian Navy created
1 April 1935	Reserve Bank of India is founded
2 Aug 1935	Government of India Act
1936	Lord Linlithgow became Viceroy Temple Entry Proclamation
Feb 1937	Final results of the elections were declared
1 April 1937	Provincial autonomy begins Formation of Congress Ministries in 6 provinces Burma and Aden are separated from India New Viceroy’s speech is boycotted by Congress Federal court started
29 April 1939	S. C. Bose resigns as president of Congress
1 Sept 1939	2nd World War (1939-45)
17 Oct	Congress demand a definition of war aims
Nov 1939	Viceroy announced – Dominion Status after the war
22 Dec 1939	Resignation by Provincial Congress Ministries Day of Deliverance by Muslim League
24 Mar 1940	Pakistan Resolution – Fazlul Haq – Muslim League
8 Aug 1940	August Offer by Linlithgow’s

1941 to 1947

16 Jan 1941	Great escape – Netaji went over land to Germany
8 Mar 1942	Japanese army enters Rangoon
22 Mar 1942	Cripps Mission
8 Aug 1942	Quit India resolution – Bombay session of AICC
9 Aug	Indian leaders & Gandhi was arrested
Aug 1942	Ballia parallel govt. in UP – Chittu Pandey
Aug 1942	Indian National Army formed – Mohan Singh
Dec	Jatiya Sarkar in Tamluk, WB (1942-44)
1943	Bengal famine
23 Mar 1943	Pakistan day observed
25 Aug	Wavell became governor-general
21 Oct	Netaji became supreme of INA
5 Dec	Prati Sarkar at Satara, MH (1943-45, longest)
30 Dec 1943	Netaji formed Govt. of Free India in Singapore Japanese attacked the Port of Kolkata Netaji sets up the Indian govt. at Port Blair. Netaji hoisted the Tricolor flag at Port Blair.
8 Mar 1944	Battle of Imphal – British vs. Japan & INA
Mar 1944	Rajagopalchari Formula
14 April 1944	INA hoisted the Tricolour flag at Moirang.
12 Jan 1945	Desai liaquat pact
25 June 1945	Simla Conference – Wavell Plan
15 Aug	Japan surrendered
2 Sept	End of World War II
Nov 1945	INA trials began at the Red Fort
Dec 1945	General elections in India Congress largest party 59 seats of the 102
Jan 1946	Royal Air Force Mutiny
18 Feb 1946	Royal Indian Navy Mutiny
23 Mar	Cabinet Mission in India
2 April	Cabinet Mission in Delhi
16 Aug 1946	Direct Action Day by Muslim League
20 Aug	Communal riots in Dhaka
2 Sept 1946	Formation of the Interim Govt.
26 Oct	Muslim League joined the Interim Govt.
9 Dec 1946	1st session of the Constituent Assembly
20 Feb 1947	Atlee announced the freedom of India
21 Feb	Mountbatten became governor-general
15 Mac	Communal riots in the Panjab
17 May	Tripura is officially ceded to India
3 June 1947	Mountbatten Plan – Partition of India
18 July	Royal assent on Independence of India Act
15 Aug 1947	India obtains Independence from the British Jawaharlal Nehru becomes 1st Indian Prime Minister

• Key concept: Governor Generals (Bengal & India) • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

Governor General of Bengal (1773–1833)

Term	Name	Events
1773-85 Highest tenure of all	Warren Hastings	Regulating Act of 1773 Act of 1781 Pitt’s India Act of 1784 Supreme Council Of Bengal Asiatic Society of Bengal by him and William Jones Stopped Mughal pension to Shah Alam II Abolished the Dual System in Bengal Moved Treasury from Murshidabad to Calcutta Bengal Gazette- First Indian newspaper published 1st Anglo-Maratha War (1775–82) 2nd Anglo–Mysore war (1780–84) 1st Rohilla War of 1773–1774 “Ring fence policy” 2nd Rohilla War 1779 Naba Kumar episode 1775 Experimentation on land settlements. (1772-five years’ settlement, changed to 1 year in 1776) English Translation of Bhagwat Gita
1785-86	John Macpherson
1786-93	Lord Cornwallis	Established lower courts and appellate courts Permanent Settlement in Bihar and Bengal in 1793 3rd Mysore war Introduction of Cornwallis Code Introduce Covenanted Civil Services in India Sanskrit Vidyalaya at Benares was established by Johnathan Duncan(Governor of Bombay)
1793-98	John Shore	Policy of Non–intervention Charter Act of 1793 Battle of Kharda between Nizam and Marathas (1795)
1798-1805	Richard Wellesley	Introduction of Subsidiary Alliance Subsidiary treaty with Nizam 1798 4th Anglo Mysore War 1799 Subsidiary treaty of Bassein 1802 2nd Anglo–Maratha War (1803–05) Fort William College at Calcutta Formation of Madras Presidency after annexation of Tanjore and Carnatic
1805-07	George Barlow	Sepoy mutiny at Vellore 1806 Bank of Calcutta established (later Imperial Bank of India, now SBI)
1807-1813	Lord Minto I	Charter Act of 1813 Treaty of Amritsar 1809 with Ranjit Singh
1813-23	Lord Hastings	Ended the policy of Non-intervention Doctrine of Paramountcy Gorkha war at Nepal 1814-16 Treaty of Sugauli 3rd Anglo–Maratha War (1816-1818) abolition of Peshwaship Creation of Bombay Presidency in 1818 Ryotwari System in Madras by governor Thomas Munro Mahalwari System in Central India, Punjab and Western UP Hindu College at Calcutta in 1817 Pindari War (1817-1818) General Committee of Public Instruction was formed in 1823
1823	John Adam	Licensing Regulations Calcutta Unitarian Committee was established by Raja Ram Mohan Roy
1823-28	Lord Amherst	1st Anglo–Burmese War (1824–26) Annexes Assam, Manipur, Arakan Treaty of Yandabo, 1826

Governor Generals of India (1833-58)

#	Name	Important Works
1	William Bentinck (1828-35)	1st Governor General of India Bengal Sati Regulation, 1829 Suppression of thuggee (Henry Sleeman was superintendent) Charter Act, 1833 Saint Helena Act 1833 Law Commission 1834 Annexation of - Cachar 1832 - Jaintia 1832 - Coorg 1834 Formation of Agra province Macaulay’s Minutes 1835 English Education Act 1835 English as a medium of instructions Medical College, Kolkata
2	Charles Metcalfe (1835-36)	Repealed 1823 Licensing Regulations Known as Liberator of India Press
3	Lord Auckland (1836-42)	Tripartite Treaty between British, Shah Shuja (Afghan traitor) and Ranjit Singh against Dost Muhammad Khan 1st Anglo Afghan War(1840-42) Bank of Bombay established (later Imperial Bank of India, now SBI)
4	Lord Ellenborough (1842-44)	Gwalior War (1843) (British Crush Marathas once and for all) Annexation of Sindh 1843 Bank of Madras established
5	Henry Hardinge I (1844-48)	1st Anglo-Sikh War (1845–46) Treaty of Lahore(1846) British confiscate Kashmir from the Sikhs and sell it to Raja of Jammu
6	Dalhousie (1848-56)	Highest tenure as Governor General of India Doctrine of Lapse Charles Wood Dispatch 1854 2nd Anglo-Sikh War (1848-1849) 2nd Anglo-Burmese War (1852) 1st train between Bombay and Thane 1st telegraph Line Diamond Harbour to Calcutta Post Office Act, 1854 Santhal Rebellion (1855) Widow Remarriage Act 1856 – drafted Established Public Works Department Engineering College was established at Roorkee

FAQs

• Key concept: Portuguese Governors of India • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

1) Fransisco de Almada

Fransisco de Almada was the first Portuguese Governor and founder of the Blue Water Policy.

2) Alphonso de Albuquerque

Alphonso de Albuquerque was the second Portuguese Governor.

• He conquered Goa from the Sultan of Bijapur in 1510 A.D.

• He founded the idea of ‘Portuguese empire in India and further encouraged conversions and forced marriages.

3) Nino de Cunha

Nino de Cunha shifted the capital city from Cochin to Goa.

St. Xavier, the popular Jesuit father visited India during the tenure of Alfanso de D’souza.

• Key concept: LORD METCALFE (Governor-General of India:1835-36) • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

Lord Metcalfe was Governor-General of India from 1835 to 1836.

Full Name:	Charles Theophilus Metcalfe, 1st Baron Metcalfe
Born:	30 January 1785, Kolkata
Died:	5 September 1846, Oakley, United Kingdom
Office	Governor-General of India:1835-36 Governor of Jamaica (1839–1842) Governor-General of the Province of Canada (1843–1845),

Major Works:

• Repealed 1823 Licensing Regulations
• Known as Liberator of India Press

FAQs

• Key concept: Maratha Empire (1674-1818) • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

The Maratha Empire dominated a large part of the Indian subcontinent in the 17th century.

The empire formally existed from 1674 with the coronation of Chattrapati Shivaji Maharaj and ended in 1818 with the defeat of Peshwa Bajirao II at the hands of the British East India Company.

Maloji Raje Bhonsle 

• He joined Nizam Shah with a small band of cavalry.

Shahaji Raje Bhonsle (1674-80)

The Maratha Empire started with Shahaji Raje Bhonsle.

Served under Nizam Shah and Adil Shah, and came to prominence as a leading Maratha.

After the fall of Ahmadnagar, he transferred his services to Bijapur.

Sambhaji (1681–89)

Sambhaji was defeated by the Mughal commander Muqqarrab Khan and was killed along with his personal counsellor, Kavi Kalash.

Rajaram (1689-1707)

The younger brother of Sambhaji, who never sat on the throne, as he claimed that he was ruling on behalf of Shahu.

Shifted his headquarters to Ginjee.

After the Mughals conquered Ginjee, he fled to Vishalgarh and then to Satara, giving Hukumat Panha (King status) to Peshwa Ramchandra Pant.

After his death in 1700, his widow Tarabai assumed control in the name of her infant son Shivaji II.

Shahu (1707-49)

Shahu was released by Zulfiqar Khan (Bahadur Shah) hoping for a civil war among Marathas.

In 1707 with the help of a Chitpavan Brahman named Balaji Vishwanath, Shahu was successful in defeating Tarabai at the Battle of Khed.

Tarabai went away to Kolhapur, establishing the Royal House of Kolhapur.

In 1719, Shahu, under the advice of Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath, assisted the Saiyyad brothers in the execution of Farukkh Siyar and got his mother released.

Soon after he declared Swaraja the Independence of Maratha land.

Rajaram II (1749–77)

Rajaram II was the adopted son of Shahu

Peshwa Baji Rao retained him as the titular Chattrapati.

The power of the Chhatrapati was almost totally overshadowed by that of the Peshwa.

Royal House of Kolhapur

Shivaji II (1710–14)

Son of Queen Tarabai and Rajaram, and was under the regency of Queen Tarabai.

Sambhaji II (1714–60)

• Son of Rajaram from his second wife Rajabai, who deposed Shivaji II and Tarabai by the palace revolution in 1714.
• He signed the Treaty of Warna in 1731 with his cousin Shahu to formalize the two separate seats of the Bhonsle family.
• British sent expeditions against Kolhapur in 1765 and 1792.
• State entered into a treaty with the British after the collapse of the Maratha confederacy in 1812.

Office of the Peshwa (1640–1818)

The word ‘Peshwa’ probably originated in Persian, meaning ‘foremost’, and was introduced in Deccan by the Muslim rulers.

The duties of a Peshwa were equal to that of a Prime Minister.

Sonopant Dabir (1640–52)

• First unofficial Peshwa

Moropant Trimbak Pingle (1674-1683)

• Participated in the battles at Trimbakeshwar Fort and Wāni-Dindori against the Mughal Empire.
• Moropant introduced sound revenue administration to Shivaji's regime and played an important role in resource planning concerning defences and maintenance of strategic forts.
• He was also responsible for the construction and administration of Pratapgad.

Nilakanth Moreshvar Pingale (1683-1689)

• Nilakanth Moreshvar Pingale was the second Peshwa of the Maratha Empire.
• In 1689, he was killed together with the Maratha King Sambhaji.

Ramchandra Pant Amatya (1689–1708)

• Peshwa under Rajaram.
• Rajaram had to escape to Ginjee in 1689, he gave Hukumat Panha (King status) to Pant before leaving.
• He wrote Adnyapatra.

Bahiroji Pingale (1708-1711)

Parshuram Trimbak Kulkarni (1711-1713)

Balaji Vishwanath (1713–19)

• Balaji Vishwanath belonged to the Bhatt family of Shri Vardhan in the Konkan region.
• He made the post of the Peshwa hereditary.
• He helped Shahu become the Maratha empire ruler by seeking the support of all Maratha leaders for Shahu.
• Shahu conferred the title of Sena-karte (organizer of forces) to him.
• In 1719, he got certain rights from the Farrukh Siyar, including recognition of Shahu as the Maratha empire king.
• He got permission to collect chauth and sardeshmukhi from the six provinces of the Deccan.
• Nana Sahib belonged to this family.

Peshwa Bajirao I (1720–40)

• The Eldest Son of Balaji Vishwanath succeeded him as Peshwa at the young age of twenty.
• Baji Rao I was the most famous of all nine Peshwas and also known as “Thorale”, meaning ‘Elder’ Baji Rao.
• He was the greatest exponent of guerrilla tactics after Shivaji.
• During his lifetime, he never lost a battle and the Maratha empire reached its zenith under him.
• Baji Rao I preached and popularized the idea of Hindu Pad Padshahi.
• He defeated the Nizam on both occasions when they fought at Palkhed and Bhopal.
• In 1722, he captured Salsette and Bassein from the Portuguese.
• He shifted the administrative capital from Satara to Pune in 1728.
• He initiated the system of the confederacy among the Maratha chiefs.
• They were the Gaekwads at Baroda, the Bhonsles at Nagpur, the Holkars at Indore, the Scindias at Gwalior, and the Peshwas at Poona.

Balaji Baji Rao I/ Nana Sahib I (1740–61)

• Balaji Baji Rao succeeded his father as Peshwa at the young age of nineteen and was appointed as Peshwa by Shahuji.
• It was during his reign that the Maratha empire king Shahu died in 1749 without an issue.
• His nominated successor, Ramraja, was imprisoned by the Peshwa Balaji Baji Rao at Satara.
• The supreme power of the Maratha empire was passed into the hands of Peshwa by the Sangola Agreement in 1750.
• He defeated Bengal Nawab Alivardi Khan and one-third of the Indian sub-continent was under the Maratha empire.
• According to an agreement in 1752, the Peshwa gave protection to Mughal Emperor from internal and external enemies.
• Maratha got chauth of the northwest provinces and total revenue of the Agra and Ajmer provinces as per the agreement.
• Honouring this agreement, Marathas fought the 3rd Battle of Panipat in 1761 when Ahmad Shah Abdali invaded India.
• The defeat of Panipat checked the expansion of the Maratha empire and fragmented it.

Madhav Rao (1761–72)

• Madhav Rao defeated the Nizam and compelled Haidar Ali of Mysore to pay tribute.
• He reasserted control over northern India by defeating the Rohillas and subjugating the Rajput state and Jat chiefs.
• In 1772, he brought back Emperor Shah Alam to Delhi.
• Maratha's empire got weakened and divided into semi-independent states.
• The most important were the Gaikwads (Gaekwars), the Holkars, and the Scindias.

Sawai Madhav Rao (1774–95)

• Son of Narayan Rao, who was merely 40 days old when crowned as Peshwa.
• The empire was managed by Nana Phadnavis, an able administrator and warrior.
• There were twelve member regency councils called the Barbhai Council.
• Out of frustration, Raghunath Rao went to the British for help which resulted in the First Anglo–Maratha war in 1775–82.
• At the battle of Talegaon in 1776, Nana Phadnavis defeated the British.
• The treaty of Purandhar in 1776 and the treaty of Salbai in 1782 were signed.
• After the death of Nana Phadnavis in 1800 the Maratha empire could not sustain itself against the British.

Baji Rao II (1796–1818)

• Son of Raghunath Rao.
• Baji Rao II signed the humiliating Treaty of Bassein with the British in 1802.
• He was defeated by the East India Company in the Third Anglo– Maratha War in 1818.
• After this, the Peshwa’s territory was annexed to the British Bombay province, and he was pensioned off.
• Nana Sahib ( Dhondu Pant ) was the adopted son of Baji Rao II.

Maratha Empire Administration

• King was assisted by a council of ministers called the Ashtapradhan
• Provinces were known as Prants.
• Prants divided into Tarfs Parganas.
• Mauzas or villages were the lowest unit.
• There were two divisions in the Maratha cavalry:
  • Bargirs: Equipped and paid by the state
  • Silahdars: Maintained by the nobles.
• Mavli foot soldiers played an important role in the infantry.
• Shivaji strongly discouraged revenue farming.
• Marathas employed a special script known as the ‘Modi script’ in the documents of the revenue and administrative records.
• Chauth and sardeshmukhi were two major sources of revenue
  1. Chauth: One-fourth (1/4th of the land revenue) was paid to the Marathas in order to avoid the Maratha raids.
  2. Sardeshmukhi 1/10 of land revenue on those lands on which the Marathas claimed hereditary rights.

The decline of the Maratha Empire

Madhavrao Peshwas was made a pensioner of the British and exiled to Bithoor, Uttar Pradesh. The Maratha kingdoms of Nagpur, Indore and Gwalior all slipped into the administrative powers of the British. They all became princely states and all the Maratha powers had no other chance to succeed so they surrendered to the British. This gave rise to the Treaty of Gwalior (5th November 1817).

The Treaty of Mandeswar was signed by Holkar on 6th January 1818 and it required the Holkar state to remain as a subsidiary of the British.

The British East India Company seized the Nassak Diamond as part of the war spoils, apart from large quantities of land which were governed by the Maratha Empire. This led to the decline of the Maratha Empire.

• Key concept: Shivaji Raje Bhonsle (1674-80) • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

Born:	19 February 1630, Shivneri Fort, Kusur
Died:	3 April 1680, Raigad Fort

Born in the hill fortress of Shivmer in Poona on Feb 19, 1630

Belonged to the Bhonsle clan of Marathas.

His mother was Jijabai.

Shivaji, influenced by Dadaji Kondev (his teacher), Sufi saint Pir Shaikh Yacub, Guru Ramdas, Tukaram, Hazrat Baba of Ratnagiri, Ramayana, and the Mahabharata.

He started his career as an independent young prince at Poona and Supa in 1637.

After the death of Dadaji Kondadev in 1647 Shivaji assumed full charge of his jagir.

In 1646, he captured Torna from Bijapur and built the fort of Raigarh.

By 1654, Shivaji had captured forts in the Western Ghats and along the Konkan coast.

Shivaji and his elder brother defeated invading armies of Adil Shah and secured the release of their father.

He raided the Portuguese settlement at Daman.

The battle of Pratapgarh in 1659 was fought between Afzal Khan (represented by Adil Shah of Bijapur) and Shivaji.

Shivaji killed Afzal Khan with his tiger claws and became a local hero.

He won the Battle of Kolhapur against Rustemjaman (represented by Adil Shah of Bijapur).

Aurangzeb considered Shivaji a mountain rat.

In 1660, Aurangzeb sent Shaista Khan to fight against Shivaji, but the war continued till 1663.

In 1663 in a night attack on Shaista Khan, Shivaji injured him and killed his son.

Shivaji sacked the port of Surat, an important Mughal trading city in 1664.

Aurangzeb sent Raja Jai Singh and Diler Khan, and they won and signed a treaty of Purander in 1665 with Shivaji.

His minor son Sambhaji was granted a mansab of 5000.

When Shivaji visited Agra with his son, was house arrested by Aurangazeb.

Shivaji escaped along with his son.

In 1670, he recovered most of his lost forts and attacked Surat for the second time.

Shivaji defeated the Mughals in the Battle of Salher in 1672.

Shivaji was coronated on 6th June 1674 at Raigarh.

He assumed the title Maharaja Chattrapati Haindava Dharmodharak (Protector of Hinduism).

Shivaji issued the gold coin, Shivaraihon, on this occasion.

He died in 1680 at the age of 53.

Shivaji promoted Sanskrit, but respected all religions and opposed the forced conversion.

• Key concept: Sambhaji (1681–89) • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

Born:	14 May 1657, Purandar Fort, Gherapurandhar
Died:	11 March 1689, Tulapur

Sambhaji was the elder son of Shivaji who was credited for defeating Chikka Deva Raja of Mysore.

Prince Akbar, the rebellious son of Aurangzeb, took shelter with him and in a pursuing battle at Sangmeshwar in 1689.

He was defeated by the Mughal commander Muqqarrab Khan and was killed along with his personal counsellor, Kavi Kalash.

Widow of Sambhaji, Yesubai could not protect the fort of Raigarh, and she along with her son, Shahu was made prisoners.

FAQs

• Key concept: Government of India Act 1919 (Montagu-Chelmsford reforms) • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

The British government, not prepared to part with or even share its power with the Indians, once again resorted to the policy of ‘carrot and stick’. The carrot was represented by the insubstantial Montagu- Chelmsford Reforms, while measures such as the Rowlatt Act represented the stick.

In 1918, Edwin Montagu, the Secretary of State, and Lord Chelmsford, the Viceroy, produced their scheme of constitutional reforms, known as the Montagu-Chelmsford (or Mont-Ford) Reforms, which led to the enactment of the Government of India Act of 1919.

Main Features

• Provincial Government
• Introduction of Dyarchy.
• Provincial legislative councils were further expanded and 70 percent of the members were to be elected.
• The system of communal and class electorates was further consolidated.
• Central Government
• No responsible government was envisaged in the Act for the government at the all-India level.
• A bicameral arrangement was introduced.
• The governor-general was to be the chief executive authority.
• The Act clarified that there would be a gradual development of self-governing institution in India and not self-determination of the people of India.

The Government of India Act (1919) - Objective

The main goal of the Indian Representation Act was to ensure that Indians were represented in the government. The Act ushered in reforms at both the federal and provincial levels of government.

Key Provisions

Government of India Act, 1919 – Other Salient Features

• This act provided for the first time, the establishment of a public service commission in India.
• The act also provided that after 10 years, a statutory commission would be set up to study the working of the government. This resulted in the Simon Commission of 1927.
• It also created the office of the High Commissioner for India in London.

Merits of the Government of India Act 1919

• Dyarchy introduced the concept of responsible government: i.e., the rule of two—executive councillors and popular ministers—was introduced. The governor was to be the executive head of the province.
• It introduced the concept of federal structure with a unitary bias.
• There was increased participation of Indians in the administration. They held some portfolios like labour, health, etc.
• For the first time, elections were known to the people and it created political consciousness among the people.
• Some Indian women also had the right to vote for the first time.

Limitations of the Government of India Act 1919

• This act extended consolidated and communal representation.
• The franchise was very limited. It did not extend to the common man.
• The governor-general and the governors had a lot of power to undermine the legislatures at the centre and the provinces respectively.
• Allocation of the seats for the central legislature was not based on population but the ‘importance’ of the province in the eyes of the British.
• The Rowlatt Acts were passed in 1919 which severely restricted press and movement. Despite the unanimous opposition of Indian members of the legislative council, those bills were passed. Several Indian members resigned in protest.
• Elected Indian ministers were given no real powers.

Reception in India  

• The Congress met in a special session in August 1918 at Bombay under Hasan Imam’s presidency and declared the reforms to be “disappointing” and “unsatisfactory” and demanded effective self-government instead.
• The 1919 reforms did not satisfy political demands in India. 
• Gandhi launched a nationwide protest against the Rowlatt Acts with the strongest level of protest in the Punjab. 

Conclusion:

The Government of India Act would go on to become the basis for the Government of India Act, 1935, and, ultimately, the Constitution.

The key principles of responsible government, self-governance and federal structure grew out of these reforms. Montagu-Chelmsford Report on Indian constitutional reforms is a watershed in India’s constitutional history.

FAQs

• Key concept: Foreign Travellers in Medieval India • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

India is known as the world’s spiritual leader. In ancient times, India’s educational system was superior to that of all other countries. Perhaps this is why so many international visitors come to India to learn about the Indian educational system.

List of Foreign Travellers who came to India in the Medieval Period

Foreign Travellers before 1500

Name	Country	Time	Ruler / Dynasty	Book / Remarks
Al-Masudi	Arab	957		Muruj-ul-Zehab
Al-beruni	Uzbekistan	1024-30	Sultan Mahmud	Tahqiq-i-Hind
Marco Polo	Italy	1288-92	Pandya Kakatiya	Book of Sir Marco Polo
Ibn-e-Batuta	Morocco	1333-42	Mohammad Bin Tughlaq	Rehla
Shihabuddin al-Umari	Damascus	1348		Masalik albsar fi-mamalik al-amsar
Nicolo Conti	Italy	1420-22	Dev Ray I
Tsang Hi (Mahuan)	China	1421-31	Jalaluddin of Bengal
Abdur Razzak	Iran	1442-43	Dev Ray II
Athnasius Niketin	Russia	1470-74	Mohammad III, Bahmani
Vasco da Gama	Portugal	1498	Zamorin

Foreign Travellers 1500-1600

Name	Country	Time	Ruler / Dynasty	Book / Remarks
Ludovico de Varthema	Italy		Gujrat, Vijayanagar
Duarte Barbosa	Portugal	1500-16	Krishna Dev Ray
Domingo’s Paes	Portugal	1520-22	Krishna Dev Ray
Nuniz	Portugal	1535-37	Achyut Dev Ray
Anthony Monserrate	Portugal	1578-82	Akbar
Ralph Fitch	England	1585-91	Akbar
John Mildenhall	England	1603	Akbar	1st recorded burial of an Englishman in India
Ceaser Fredriseh			Vijay Nagar
John Linscoten	Dutch		Vijay Nagar
Lama Taranath	Tibet		Eastern India

Foreign Travellers 1600-20

Name	Country	Time	Ruler / Dynasty	Book / Remarks
William Hawkins	England	1608-13	Jahangir	King James I
William Fisch	England	1608-12	Jahangir
John Jurdan	Portugal	1608-17	Jahangir
Nicholos Doughton	England	1608-15	Jahangir
Nicholos Withurgton	England	1612-16	Jahangir
Thomas Coryat	England	1612-17	Jahangir
Thomas Roe	England	1615-19	Jahangir	King James I
Pal Canning	England	1615-25	Jahangir
Edward Terry	England	1616-19	Jahangir
Francisco Paelsert	Dutch	1620-27	Jahangir

Foreign Travellers after 1620

Name	Country	Time	Ruler / Dynasty	Book / Remarks
Pietra Della Velle	Italy	1622-60	Jahangir
John Loyatt	Dutch	1626-33	Shahjahan
John Fryer	England	1627	Shahjahan
Peter Mundy	Italy	1630-34	Shahjahan
John Albert de Mandesto	Germany	1638	visited Surat
Baptiste Tavernier	France	1641-87	Shahjahan Aurangzeb
Nicolao Manucci	Italy	1656-87	Dara Shikoh
François Bernier	France	1658-68	Aurangzeb	Physician of Dara Sikho
Jean de Thevnot	France	1666-68	Aurangzeb
John Fryer	English	1672-81	Surat and Bombay
Gammilly Careri	Italy	1695-97	Bijapur

• Key concept: History of Medieval India • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

The time from the 8^th to the 12^th century is known as the Medieval Period. It is again divided into two periods- The early Medieval period and the later medieval period.

Medieval India is the phase of the Indian subcontinent between the ancient period and the modern period. This phase can be related to the time period between the 6th century and 16th century.

Foreign Travellers in Medieval India

Early Medieval India

• Prithvi Raj Chauhan
• The Pratiharas
• Social and Cultural Development during Rajput Dynasty
• The Rashtrakutas
• The Palas
• Rajput Dynasties
• Kannauj after Harsha
• The Senas of Bengal
• The Gahadavals/Rathors of Kannauj
• Chahamans or Chauhanas of Shakambhari
• The Kalachuri’s of Tripuri
• Chandellas of Bundelkhand
• Karkota Dynasty
• Utpala Dynasty
• Kingdoms of Kashmir after Utpalas
• Ride of Lohara Dynasty
• Arab conquest of Sindh

Chola Empire
The Turkish conquest of India

The Rise of Rajput

• The Chandela of Bundelkhand
• The Origin of Rajputs

Emergence of Provincial kingdoms

• Architecture and Literature during Vijayanagara Empire
• The Bahmani Kingdom

Delhi Sultanate

• Mahmud Ghaznavi: Why did he attack 17 times on India?
• Delhi Sultanate: Jalal ud din Khilji and Alauddin Khilji (Khilji Dynasty)
• Economic Policy and Administration under Khilji Dynasty
• Razia Sultan: The First Women Ruler of India
• Bahlul Lodhi
• Causes of the Downfall of the Lodhi Dynasty
• Administration in Delhi Sultanate
• Firoz Shah Tuglaq
• Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq: The First Emperor of the Tughlaq Dynasty
• Qutb-ud-Din Mubarak Shah Khilji
• Muhammad Bin Tughlaq: Key Facts and Reforms
• Smaller Kingdoms during Sultanate Era
• Sayyid Dynasty: List of Rulers
• Sikandar Lodi: Administration and Achievements
• Economic Conditions during Delhi Sultanate
• Ibn Battuta’s Memoir on Tughlaq Dynasty
• Invasion of Timur on India: Causes and Consequences
• Sufi Movement in India: A Detailed Summary

Mughal Empire

• Akbar the Great
• Nasin al Din Muḥammad (Humayun)
• Ibrahim Lodi
• Jehangir
• Shahabuddin Muhammad Shah Jahan
• Aurangzeb -Emperor of Mughal India
• Babur (Zahir-ud-din Muhammad)
• Cultural Development during Mughal Era
• The Sur Empire
• Mughal Administration: Key Features & Structure
• Mughal Empire: Contribution in Arts and Architecture
• List of the Great Mughal Emperors of India

Maratha Empire

Southern Dynasties

Vijayanagara

Bahamani Kingdom

Religious Movements during the Medieval Period

• Key concept: Vijayanagar Empire (1336-1672) • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

By the end of the Sultanate Period, Multan and Bengal were the first territories to break away from Delhi and declared independence. Many other territories in the Deccan region also rose to power.

The ‘Vijayanagara’ or ‘City of Victory’ was the name of the city as well as an empire that was founded by two brothers, Harihara and Bukka in 1336 AD. 

It was on the southern banks of the Tungabhadra river. They made Hampi the capital city. Before they served under Kakatiya ruler of Warangal.

The sources of Vijayanagar empire history include accounts of foreign travellers, Indigenous Works (local vernacular literature), and archaeological excavations.

Vijayanagar Empire was Ruled by

• Sangama dynasty (1336-1486)
• Saluva dynasty (1486-1506)
• Tuluva dynasty (1506-1565)
• Aravidu dynasty (1570-1647)

Sangam Dynasty

Harihara  (1336–56)

• In 1336 Harihara became the ruler of Sangama Dynasty.
• By 1346, the whole of the Hoyasala kingdom had passed into the hands of the Vijayanagar rulers.
• By 1377, the sultanate of Madurai was completely wiped out.
• Vijayanagar empire then comprised the whole of south India upto Rameswaram.
• Bagepalli Copper Plate Inscription of Harihara I tells us about his achievements.
• In 1356 Bukka succeeded Harihara.

Deva Raya II  (1424–46)

• Deva Raya II was the greatest ruler of the Sangama dynasty.
• He acquired the title of Gajabetegara.
• In order to strengthen his army, he inducted more Muslims in his army.
• He asked all his Hindu soldiers and officers to learn the art of archery from the Muslim army.
• Srirangam copper plates of Deva Raya Il list the various achievements of the ruler.
• Sanskrit poet Gunda Dimdima and Telugu poet Kavisarvabhauma Srinatha, author of Haravilasam, were in his court.
• Persian traveller Abdur Razzak visited his court.

Saluva and Tuluva Dynasty

• After some time of the death of Dev Raya II the throne was usurped by the king’s  minister, Saluva Narasimha.
• Thus the Sangama dynasty came to an end and the Saluva dynasty was established.
• The Saluva dynasty also soon came to an end, and a new dynasty called the Tuluva dynasty was founded by Vira Narasimha.

Krishna deva Raya  (1509-29)

Krishnadevaraya was the king of Vijayanagara Empire who reigned in the 16th century over most of South India.

Achyuta Deva Raya (1529 – 42)

• Achyuta Deva Raya was the younger brother of Krishna Deva Raya.
• Portuguese traveller, Fernoa Nuniz, came to India during his reign.
• He patronised the Kannada poet Chatu Vittalanatha, the great singer and composer Purandaradasa (father of Carnatic music), and the Sanskrit scholar Rajanatha Dindima II.
• The Tiruvengalanatha temple is now popularly known as the Achyutaraya temple.
• Tenali Rama, the author of Panduranga Mahatyam also was a famous poet in this region.

Rama Raja

• Ram raja was a son-in-law of Krishna Deva Raya.
• He was able to playoff various Muslim power against one another.
• He entered into a commercial treaty with the Portuguese.
• Ram Raja completely defeated the Bijapur ruler.
• Then he allied himself with the Bijapur ruler to inflict humiliating defeats on Golconda and Ahmednagar.
• However, his enemies (except Berar) ultimately combined to inflict a crushing defeat on Vijayanagar at Bannihatti, in the Battle of Talikota, in 1565.
• This battle is also known as the Battle of Raksasa Tangadi.
• Rama Raja was imprisoned and immediately executed.
• The city of Vijayanagar was destroyed. This battle was generally considered to mark the end of the Vijayanagar Empire. However, the Vijayanagar kingdom existed under the Aravidu dynasty for about another century.

Aravidu Dynasty:

• Thirumala, Sri Ranga and Venkata II were the important rulers of this dynasty.
• Venkata II was contemporary to Akbar. He shifted capital city to
• The last ruler of the Vijayanagar kingdom was Sri Ranga III.
• Sri Ranga was defeated by Mir Jumla of Golconda in the battle of Vandavasi in 1647.
• Vijayanagar empire came to an end with this.

Revenue:

• Land revenue was the major source of income for the state.
• Generally, it was at the rate of one-sixth of the total produce.

Religion:

• The Sangama rulers were chiefly Saivaites and Virupaksha was their family deity. But other dynasties were Vaishnavites.
• But all kings were tolerant towards other religions. Borbosa referred to the religious
  freedom enjoyed by everyone.
• Muslims were employed in the administration and they were freely allowed to build mosques and worship.
• Shunya sampadane– a collection of vachanas produced in this age.(vachanas literally meaning sayings in kannada, these are poetic verses composed in kannada language, popularized by veershaiva movement led by Basavanna).

Literature:

• Sanskrit, Kannada, Telugu language witnessed voluminous literature in Vijayanagar period.
• Few Sanskrit works are.
  • Gangadevi wrote- Madhuravijayam
  • Krishnadevarya wrote – usha parinayan, jambavanti kalyanam, madalasa charita.
  • Guru vidyaranya wrote—Raja kalanirnaya
• Literary works in Kannada.
  • Chamarasa wrote – prabhulingaleele
  • Kanakadas wrote- Ramadhanacharite, nala charite, mohantarangini
  • Kumaravyasa wrote – Karnataka katha manjari
  • Purandardas — keertanas
• Literary works in Telugu
  • Krishnadevaraya wrote – Amuktamalyada
  • Allasani pedanna wrote – Manucharita
  • Nandi timanna wrote – Parijathaparahana etc
• Ashtadiggajas– eight great poets of Telugu literature flourished in the court of Krishnadevaraya.

Trade and Commerce

• According to Abdur Razzak, the state had 300 seaports.
• The most important commercial area on the west coast was Malabar, with its important port Cannanore.
• Among the exports, the main items were cloth, spices, rice, iron, salt petre, sugar, etc.
• They issued Gold Pagoda or Varaha Coin.

Position of Women

• Women occupied a high position and took an active part in the political, social and literary life of the empire.
• They were educated and trained in wrestling, in the use of various weapons of offence and defence, and in music and fine arts.
• Nuniz writes that the kings had women astrologers, clerks, accountants, guards and wrestlers.

Architecture

They used the Dravidian style of architecture later added some unique features to it and it came to be called as Vijayanagara style.

The courtly architecture of Vijayanagar is generally made of mortar mixed with stone rubble and often shows secular styles with Islamic-influenced arches, domes, and vaults.

Some famous temples exemplifying the Vijayanagar style include the Virupaksha Temple at Hampi and the Hazara Rama temple of Deva Raya I etc.

Sources of Vijayanagar Empire

Sources	Literary Works	Information
Foreign Traveller Accounts	Rehlatar Tuhfat-un-Nuzzat by Ibn Batuta	Account of the empire under Harihara I
	Matla as Sadain Wa Majma ul Bahrain by Abdur Razzaq	An account of the reign of Devaraya II
	An Account of Countries Bordering the Indian Ocean and their Inhabitants by Duarte Barbosa	A vivid account of Vijaynagara governance under Krishna Deva Raya
	Domingo Paes gave the most detailed accounts of all historic descriptions of ancient city Hampi	Governance under Krishna Deva Raya of Vijayanagara Empire
	Fernao Nuniz gave a detailed account of the history of Vijaynagar.	Mentioned the cultural aspects of the empire and admire the jewels worn of women as well as how women were appointed in the King's service and also detailed account on the foundation of the city
Indigenous Works	1. Manucharitam by Allasani Peddan 2. Gangdas Pratapa Vilasam by Gangadhara 3. Amuktarmalyada by Krishnadeva Raya	Polity and political ideas of the ruler's society and the caste system
Archaeological Sources	Salu Vabhyudyam by Rajanatha Dindima	1. A contemporary drama, deals with the siege of Vijayanagara city by the Brahmins and the Gajapatis of Odisha after the death of Deva Raya II 2. Historical eulogy of Saluva Dynasty
Inscriptions	Bagapellisi Copper Plate Inscription	Achievement of Harihara I
	Bitragunta grant of Sangama II	Genealogy of 5 Sangama Brothers
	Channa Raya Pateeka Inscription of Harihara II	Successful invasions of Bukka I
	Srirangam Copper Plates of Deva Raya II	Achievements of Bukka I
	Devulapalli Copper Plates of Immadi Narasimha	Genealogy of Saluva Dynasty

The history of the Vijayanagara Empire was recovered through the efforts of Mr. R Sewell, who was the Keeper of the Madras Record Office and was tasked with the responsibility for documenting ancient inscriptions and remains in the region. 

• Key concept: Rashtrakuta Dynasty (755–975 AD) • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

The main Chalukya dynasty survived until 753 when one of its feudatories seized power and installed a new dynasty on the throne. This was the Rashtrakuta dynasty.

The Rashtrakutas were more expansionist than the Chalukyas had been. 

They became involved in the great power struggles in both northern, where they competed with the powerful Gurjara-Pratihara and Pala kingdoms for dominance (a contest known to modern scholars as the Tripartite Struggle); and southern India, where they contested the power of the Pallava kingdom.

• Rashtrakuta dynasty called themselves descendants of Satyaki.
• They were a feudatory of the Badami Chalukyas
• Dantidurga overthrew Chalukya king Kirtivarman II
• He built an empire with the Gulbarga region in modern Karnataka as its base.
• This clan came to be known as the Rashtrakuta of Manyakheta, rising to power in South India.
• Rashtrakuta dynasty was of Kannada origin and their mother tongue was Kannada or Kanarese.
• Vaishnavism and Saivism flourished during their period.
• Active commerce was witnessed between the Deccan and the Arabs.

Sources:

• Ellora and samugarh inscription.
• S Altekar has written book “Rashtrakuta and their times”

Rulers of Rashtrakutas

Dantidurga (735 – 756)

• Dantidurga was the founder of the Rashtrakutas dynasty.
• He occupied all territories between the Godavari river and Vima river.
• Dantidurga occupied Maharashtra by defeating Chalukya King Kirtivarman II.
• From Samangad Plates and Dasavatara Cave of Ellora we can know about his victory

Krishna I (756-774)

• Krishna I succeeded Dantidurga.
• He occupied Konkan coast region.
• Krishna I also defeated Vishnuvardhana of Vengi (Eastern Chalukyas) and the Ganga king of Mysore.
• The Monolithic Kailash Temple at Ellora was built by the Krishna I.

Govinda II (774–780 AD)

He left the administration to his younger brother named Dhruva Dharavarsha. Apart from his commitment to exotic joys and an intrusion of Vengi and the ensuing annihilation of Eastern Chalukya ruler Vishnuvardhana IV (when his dad Krishna I was still the Rashtrakuta emperor), very little is thought about Govinda I.

Dhruva (780-793)

• Dhruva defeated Gurjara Pratihara King Vatsyaraja, the Pallavas of Kanchi and the Pala King Dharmapala of Bengal.
• He is the most notable ruler of the Rashtrakut dynasty.
• The Dhulia grant of 779 and Garugadahalli inscription of 782 proclaim Dhruva the emperor.

Govinda III (793-814)

• Govinda III son of Dhruva succeeded the throne.
• The Most successful emperor of the Rashtrakut dynasty
• Govinda III conquered from Cape Comorin in the south to Kannauj in the north, from Banaras in the east to Broach.
• He defeated the great Gurjara King Nagabhatta II.
• Pala King Dharmapala and his protege Charayudh sought the help of Govinda III.
• His kingdom spread up to the Vindhyas and Malava in the north and the river Tungabhadra to the south.

Amoghavarsha I (814- 878)

• Also known as Sarva (Amoghavarsha I)
• He was one of the greatest rulers of the Rashtrakuta tradition. 
• Amoghavarsha I set up a new capital at Manyakheta (now Malkhed in Karnataka State).
• Broach became the best port of the kingdom during his reign
• Amoghavarsha wrote Kavirajamarga, a landmark literary work in the Kannada language
• He was converted into Jainism by Jinasena, a Jaina monk, author of Adipurana.
• Suleman, an Arab merchant, in his account called Amoghavarsha I as one of the four greatest kings of the world.
• Amoghavarsha ruled for 63 years.

Krishna II (878-914)

• Son of Amoghavarsha, succeeded the throne.
• His daughter had married the Chola king Aditya I

Indra III (914 -929)

• Indra III was a powerful king.
• He defeated and deposed Pratihara king Mahipala
• Indra III was married to princess Vijamba of the Kalachuri dynasty of central India (Chedi)
• His Jain general Sri Vijaya (who was also a poet) won may wars for his king

Govinda IV

• He patronised Kannada poet Ravinagabhatta.

Krishna III (939–967)

• The last powerful and efficient king of the Rashtrakuta dynasty.
• He also succeeded in conquering Tanjore and Kanchi.
• Krishna III defeated the Cholas decisively in a battle of Takkolam in the North Arcot district.
• He patronise the famous Kannada poets Sri Ponna, who wrote Shanti purana, Gajankusha, also known as Narayana, who wrote on erotics, and the Apabhramsha poet, Pushpadanta who wrote Mahapurana
• We can know about Krishna III from Atakur inscription

Decline Rashtrakuta Dynasty

• In 972 during the rule of Khottiga Amoghavarsha, the Paramara King Siyaka Harsha attacked and plundered the capital Manyakheta
• The Rashtrakuta King Karka II was defeated and deposed by Taila or Tailapa II, the Chalukya king of Kalyani.
• Indra IV, the last king, committed Sallekhana.
• With the fall of the Rashtrakuta dynasty, their feudatories declared independence.

Rasjtrakuta Dynasty Administration

• Rashtrakuta kingdom was divided into Rashtras (provinces) – controlled by rashtrapatis.
• Rashtras divided into Vishayas or districts, governed by Vishayapatis.
• Subdivision was Bukti, consisting of 50 to 70 villages under the control of  Bhogapatis.
• Village headmen carried on village administration.
• Village assemblies played a significant role in the village administration.

Art, Culture and Literature

The Rashtrakuta rulers were great patrons of learning. Kannada and Sanskrit literature made great progress during their reign.

The three gems of ancient Kannada literature –Pampa, Ranna, Ponna were patronised by Rashtrkuta kings. They wrote the following books in Kannada

• Pampa- Adipurana, vikramarjuna vijaya
• Ranna- Gadhayudha
• Ponna- Shantipurana

Amoghvarsha wrote Kavirajamarga, first book on poetics in kannada

Mahaveeracharya , a mathematician , wrote Ganithasarasangraha in sanskrit.

Halayudha wrote Kavirahasya in Sanskrit.

The Rashtrakutas constructed surely understood Jain temples at areas, for example, Lokapura in Bagalkot locale and their reliable feudatory, the Western Ganga Dynasty, assembled Jain landmarks at Shravanabelagola and Kambadahalli.

Lord Amoghavarsha I was a follower of the Jain acharya Jinasena.

Ellora, Ajantha and Elephanta are centres of their art.

Architecture

They built structural temple , cave temple and Basadis. Ellora, Ajantha and Elephanta are centres of their art.

Kailasa Temple:

it was built by the 8th century Rashtrakuta King Krishna I between the year 756 and 773 AD. Cave 16, known as the Kailasha temple, is a particularly notable cave temple in India as a result of its size, architecture and having been entirely carved out of a single rock.

Other shrines carved from the same rock are dedicated to Ganga, Yamuna, Saraswati, the ten avatars of Vishnu, Vedic gods and goddesses including Indra, Agni, Vayu, Surya and Usha, as well as non-Vedic deities like Ganesha, Ardhanarishvara (half Shiva, half Parvati), Harihara (half Shiva, half Vishnu), Annapurna, Durga and others.

The scenes of Ramayana were also depicted on the walls.

Dasavathara cave:

Cave 15, Dashavatara Cave is one of the finest at Ellora. The two storeyed temple contains mesmerising Shiva Nataraja and a Shiva emerging from Lingam while Vishnu and Brahma pay homage. finest relief of this cave is the one depicting the death of Hiranyakashipu, where Vishnu in man-lion (Narasimha) form, emerges from a pillar to lay a fatal hand upon his shoulder.

Other reliefs in Cave 15 include the Gangadhara, marriage of Shiva and Parvati, Tripurantika of Shakti tradition, Markendeya, Garuda, aspects of life, Nandi in mandapa, dancing Shiva, Andhakasura, Govardhanadhari, Gajendravarada and others.

Elephanta cave:

Elephanta, which is an island 6 miles from Mumbai has 7 caves.The Portuguese after seeing the large elephant named it elephant. The sculptural art of Rashtrakutas reached its zenith in this place.

The sculptures such as Nataraja and Sadashiva excel even that of the Ellora sculptures in
beauty and crafsmanship. Ardhanarishvara and Maheshamurti are the other famous sculptures.

The most imposing figure of this temple is Trimurthi It is said to represent the three aspects of Shiva as creator, preserver and destroyer. It is a UNESCO world heritage site.

Religion:

• Rashtrakuta rulers had great quality of religious tolerance.
• The worship of Shiva and Vishnu was popular during the Rashtrakuta reign. The famous rock-cut Shiva temple at Ellora was built by Krishna I.
• Jainism was patronized by laters rulers like Amoghavarsha. He was also staunch devotee of Kolhapur Mahalaxmi .
• Buddhism had declined and its only important centre was at Kanheri.

• Key concept: Gurjara Pratihara Dynasty (725-1036) • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

The geographical name of Gujarat is supposed to be derived from Gurjara. The literary meaning of Pratihara is ‘door keeper.’

The Gurjara Pratihara dynasty kings were followers of Hinduism. It is believed that their ancestor Lakshmana served as a doorkeeper to his brother Rama. 

They ruled between mid-8th and 11th century A.D. over northern and western India.

The Pratiharas stood as a fortification of India’s defence against the hostility of the Muslims from the days of Junaid of Sind (725. A.D.) to Mahmud of Ghazni.

Capital of Gurjara Pratihara dynasty was first at Ujjain and later at Kannauj.

Colonel James Todd wrote “Annals of Rajputana” or “ Rajasthan Kathavali”, According to James Todd Rajputs were descendants of HUNs. Somadeva Suri's “Kathasaritha Sagara” also gives details of Rajputs. Rashtrakuta poet Pampa also mentions Gujara in his book.

Rulers:

Bhoja

The Gwalior inscription mentioned the early history of the family founded by King Bhoja in the 7th century.

Nagabhatta I (725-740)

Nagabhatta is the real founder of the Gurjara Pratihara dynasty. He established the capital at Avanti in Malwa.

He came into conflict with Rashtrakuta king Dhruva (tripartite warfare for Kannauj)

Junaid, another Arab commander defeated by him in Battle of Rajasthan.

Vatsaraja (780–800)

Nagabhtta was followed by Vatsaraja.

Vatsaraja captured Kannauj and came in direct conflict with the Palas of Bengal. He defeated Dharmapala.

In 786 AD the Rastrakuta King Dhruva defeated him.

Nagabhatta II (805-33)

Nagabhatta was initially defeated by Rastrakuta King Govinda III but later recovered and captured Kannauj.

He is best known for rebuilding the Somnath Temple in 815. Somnath Temple was destroyed by the Arab armies of Junayad in 725 AD.

This was a large structure of Red Sandstone which was again destroyed in 1024 by Mahamud of Ghazni.

Mihirabhoja (836-85)

Mihirabhoja ruled long for 46 years. He defeated Rashtrakuta king Krishna-II and captured the region of Malwa and Gujarat.

Mihirabhoja was a devotee of Vishnu, and adopted the title of ‘Adivaraha.’

Mihirbhoj was mentioned by Arab travellers. Abu Suleman called him king Juzr, al-masudi called king Baura.

Mahendrapala (885-908)

Son of Mihirabhoja, was also known as ‘Mahendrayudha’, and ‘Nirbhayanarendra.’

Rajashehara, Sanskrit poet was in his court.

Mahipala

Arab scholar, Al-Masudi, visited his court in 915-916.

Rajyapala

The last king Rajyapala was defeated by Krishna 3 of Rashtrakuta and Ghazni Mohammed.

Decline of the Pratihara Dynasty

The Rashtrakuta king, Indra-II again attacked Kanauj between A.D. 915 and A.D. 918 and destroyed it.

Krishna III was another Rashtrakuta ruler who invaded north India in about A.D. 963.

He defeated the Pratihara rulers. This led to the decline of the Gurjara Pratihara Empire.

Rajyapala was the last Gurjara Pratihara king. In his time empire was reduced to Kanauj and nearby areas.

The Pratihara power came to an end after Mahmud of Ghazni attacked the kingdom in 1018 A.D.

This led to fragmentation of Rajput

Architecture

There are notable examples of architecture from the Gurjara-Pratihara era, including sculptures and carved panels. They started Maru- Gujara  style of architecture.

Bateshwar Hindu temples complex: Located near Gwalior(MP) Dedicated to Shiva, Vishnu and Shakti.

Baroli temple complex

• Key concept: 16 Mahajanapadas (with Capital) • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

The Mahajanapadas were a set of sixteen kingdoms that existed in ancient India. It all began when the tribes (Janas) of the late Vedic period decided to form their own territorial communities, which eventually gave rise to new and permanent areas of settlements called ‘states’ or ‘janapadas.’

The period of Mahajanpadas (600 BCE) is also known as the Period of 2nd urbanization (IVC was the 1st urbanization) as the centre of polity and economy shifted from India’s North-west to Eastern states (mainly Bihar). 

At that time there were 16 such Mahajanapadas (as per the Buddhist text Anguttara Nikaya)

1. Anga

Capital: Champa

Modern location: Munger and Bhagalpur, Bihar

• Reference found in the Mahabharata and Atharva Veda
• Bimbisara taken over Anga

2. Magadha

Capital: Rajagriha

Modern location: Gaya and Patna

• Magadha was semi-Brahmanical habitation.
• Magadha and Anga was divided by river Champa.
• Later it became a center of Jainism and Buddhist

3. Kasi

Capital: Kasi

Modern Location: Banars

It got its name from the rivers Varuna and Asi according to Matsya Purana. Dhritarashtra once ruled over Kashi and Anga

4. Vatsa

Capital: Kausambi

Modern Location: Allahabad

• Vatsa is also known as Vamsa
• Ruler Udayana made Buddhism a state religion.

5. Kosala

Capital: Sravasti

Modern Location: Eastern Uttar Pradesh ( Ayodhya)

• Ayodhya was an important town in Kosala.
• It was merged in the Magadha by the Magadha ruler, Ajatashatru.
• Kosala also included the tribal republican territory of Sakyas of Kapilvastu.

6. Saurasena

Capital: Mathura

Modern Location: Western Uttar Pradesh

• This place was a centre of Krishna worship at the time of Megasthenes.
• The most famous ruler was Avantiputra.

7. Panchala

Capital: Ahichchatra and Kampliya

Modern Location: Western Uttar Pradesh

Later the nature of governance shifted from monarchy to republic. Kanauj was an important town in this kingdom

8. Kuru

Capital: Indraprastha

Modern Location: Thaneswar, Meerut and Southeastern Haryana

The area around Kurukshetra was apparently the site for Kuru Mahajanapada. It moved to a republic form of governance.

9. Matsya

Capital: Viratnagar. Modern Location: Jaipur

It got its independence from the Chedi kingdom (ruled by King Sahaja) under the leadership of Virat Raja.

10. Chedi

Capital: Sotthivati

Modern Location:  Yamuna and Narmada belt

This was cited in the Rigveda. It is located in the present-day Bundelkhand region.

11. Avanti

Capital: Ujjaini or Mahismati.

Modern Location: Malwa and Madhya Pradesh

Avanti was significant in relation to the rise of Buddhism. It was the most vulnerable of all the mahajanapadas and was ruled by many kingdoms

12. Gandhara

Capital: Taxila

Modern Location: Rawalpindi

Gandhara is cited in the Atharva Veda. It was significant for international commercial activities.

13. Kamboja

Capital: Pooncha

Modern Location: Rajori and Hajra

It is situated in present day Kashmir and Hindukush.

Several literary sources mention that Kamboja was a republic.

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14. Ashmaka or Assaka

Capital: Pratisthan/ Paithan

Modern Location: Bank of Godavari

Brahamdatta was its most important ruler.

15. Vajji

Capital: Vaishali

Modern Location: North Bihar

Vajji was the seat of a united republic of eight smaller kingdoms of which Lichchavis, Janatriks and Videhas were also members. 

16. Malla

Capital: Kusinara

Modern Location: Deoria and Uttar Pradesh,  Gorakhpur region

Religion was Buddhism. Malla was a republic

FAQs

• Key concept: Taxila University • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

Taxila University is the oldest university and was probably the first organized educational centre in ancient India.

According to the Indian epic Ramayana, by Bharata, the younger brother of Rama, an incarnation of the Hindu god Vishnu. TakshaShila is considered the ancient world's first international university 

The university was funded by almost all the great kings and rulers of the ancient past.

It was a centre of learning for logic, religion, medicine, mathematics, astrology, the Vedas, warfare and primitive science

Taxila was the capital of the Gandhara Kingdom, allowing students from all parts of India to be enrolled and education was free for all.

Only Chandalas were not allowed to study in this university.

Scholars like Nagarjuna, Panini, Chanakya, Prasanajit, and Jeevka (son of Bimbisara) all came to this place to study before they became important personalities in Indian history.

Alexander took some scholars from Taxila to Greece.

In BC, the Hun ruler, Toramana, attacked and demolished the university campus.

During that time, most of the records were burnt or destroyed.

FAQs

• Key concept: Chola Dynasty (848-1279) • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

The Chola dynasty was a Tamil dynasty in southern India. They are one of the longest-ruling dynasties in history. The earliest references to the Chola dynasty can be traced to Sangam Age.

The Heartland of the Chola kingdom was the valley of the Kaveri River.

More than 10,000 inscriptions engraved on copper and stone form the primary sources for the study of Chola history.

Literary sources, such as Tamil literature flourished during this period. The rise in bhakti saints and compilation of hymns reflect sociocultural features of that period Muvarula, and Kamba Ramayanam, the great epic, belong to this period

Chola Dynasty Kings

Medieval Cholas
Vijayalaya Chola	848-871(?)
Aditya I	871-907
Parantaka Chola I	907-950
Gandaraditya	950-957
Arinjaya Chola	956-957
Sundara Chola	957-970
Uttama Chola	970-985
Rajaraja Chola I	985-1014
Rajendra Chola I	1012-1044
Rajadhiraja Chola	1018-1054
Rajendra Chola II	1051-1063
Virarajendra Chola	1063-1070
Athirajendra Chola	1067-1070
Chalukya Cholas
Kulothunga Chola I	1070-1120
Vikrama Chola	1118-1135
Kulothunga Chola II	1133-1150
Rajaraja Chola II	1146-1163
Rajadhiraja Chola II	1163-1178
Kulothunga Chola III	1178-1218
Rajaraja Chola III	1216-1256
Rajendra Chola III	1246-1279

Vijayalaya Chola (848–871)

• Vijayalaya was the founder of the Chola Dynasty.
• He captured Tanjore from Muttarayar, an ally of the Pandyas, around 850 AD.
• He founded the temple of Nishumbhasudini (Durga) in Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu.
• They were feudatories of the Pallavas.

Aditya Chola (891–907)

• Aditya Chola defeated and murdered his Pallava overlord Aparajita and occupied the entire Tondaimandalam.
• He conquered the Kongu country as well.
• He is said to have built Siva temples on both banks of the Kaveri river.

Parantaka I (907–950)

• At the start of his reign, Parantaka I invaded the Pandya territory.
• Parantaka I assumed the title of ‘Maduraikonda’ (Conqueror of Madurai).
• Uttaramerur inscription tells about his region.
• Krishna Ill, one of the greatest Rashtrakuta rulers, defeated Parantaka in the famous battle of Takkolam (near Arkonam) in 949 AD.

Rajaraja Chola I (985–1014)

• The real greatness of the Chola kingdom began with Rajaraja Chola I.
• He is also known as Arumolivarman.
• Rajaraja Chola I defeated a confederation of the three kingdoms of Pandya, Kerala and Ceylon.
• He destructed the Anuradhapura after defeating north Ceylon.
• Rajaraja Chola I also annexed the Maldives probably for securing the trade routes of the Indian Ocean.
• He built the Famous Rajeshwara / Brihadeshwara temple at Thanjavur (Dravida Style) in 1010 AD.
• Rajaraja Chola I encouraged Sailendra ruler of Srivijaya (South-East Asia), to build a Buddhist vihara at Nagapattinam.
• The vihara was called ‘Chudamani Vihara‘.

Rajendra Chola I (1012–1044)

• Rajendra I conducted the most striking military exploit after his accession in 1023 by his expedition to northern India.
• Rajendra Chola defeated southern Srilanka & annexed the whole Cylon (Srilanka).
• He moved to the north & Captured Bengal defeating Mahipala I.
• Rajendra Chola assumed title of Gangaikonda Chola.
• He conquered the Malay Peninsula & converted the Bay of Bengal to Chola lake for trading purposes with China.
• He founded the new capital of the Chola dynasty Gangaikondacholapuram at Kaveri valley.
• Rajendra Chola also built the famous Gangaikondachola Temple (Dravida style) in the new capital of the Chola dynasty.
• In 1025, Rajendra Chola sent an expedition to Sumatra and Malaya and defeated the ruler of the Srivijaya empire.
• He established many educational institutes in his empire, for this he got the title Pandita chola.
• In 1015 and 1033 Rajendra Chola I sent diplomatic missions to China.

Rajadhiraja (1044–1054)

• Rajadhiraja suppressed rebellions in Pandya, Kerala and Ceylon kingdoms.
• He performed the virabhisheka.
• It was the coronation of the victory there and assumed the title of ‘Vijayarajendra’.

Kulottunga I (1070–1120)

• Kulottunga I is the son of Rajaraja Narendra of Vengi and Chola princess Ammangadevi.
• He united the Vengi kingdom with the Chola kingdom.
• Kulottunga I sent a large embassy of 72 merchants to China.
• Suryavarman Il, the builder of Angkor Wat, sent a precious jewel to Kulottunga who then donated it to the temple of Chidambaram in 1114 AD.
• Last Chola dynasty king was Rajendra Chola III (1246–1279).

Rajendra III (1246-1279)

He was the last Chola king who was defeated by Jatavarman Sundarapandya II. On the ruins of the Chola empire, Pandya and Hoysala kingdoms came into existence.

Chola Administration

King: The emperor or king was at the top of the administration. All authority rested in his hands. He often went on tours in order to keep better touch with the administration.

Chola rulers appointed Brahmins as spiritual preceptors or rajagurus (the kingdom’s guide). Rajaraja I and Rajendra I mention the names of rajagurus and Sarva-sivas in their inscriptions.

Chola kings granted huge estates of land to Brahmins as brahmadeyams and caturvedimangalams..

Provinces: The Chola Kingdom was divided into Mandalams or provinces.

Mandalams were further divided into Towns and Villages.

Autonomous administration for towns and townships, known as Tankurrams.

Town autonomy was quite similar to village autonomy and both were administered by assemblies.

In the sabha, membership was restricted to the Brahmins of the village or was found exclusively in a village gifted to Brahmins.

The nagaram was found more commonly in trade centres such as cities and towns.

Military administration: The Cholas maintained a large army consisting of infantry, cavalry and elephants which were called the three limbs of the army. The venetian traveller Marco Polo says that all the bodyguards of the king burnt themselves on the funeral pyre of the dead king.

Public Works in Chola Kingdom

Extensive irrigation works, roads and cities were made in the time of Chola dynasty.

They made an artificial lake (16 miles in length) near Gangaikonda Cholapuram, and constructed dams across the Kaveri river for irrigation purposes.

Trade & Diplomacy of Chola Dynasty

Merchants, who operated locally were called swadeshi and those who operated internationally called nanadesi.

The merchants had their own settlements (nagara) with autonomous institutions of local government.

The great ports (pattinam) also had their guilds and autonomous institutions.

They financed local development projects, and the construction of temples, and lent money to the Chola kings.

Among the most powerful guilds were the Ayyavole and the Manigramam. Ayyavole extended to West Asia, while the Manigramam concentrated on trade with South-East Asia.

Religion

Chola rulers were ardent Saivite. Shiva was the preeminent god for the Cholas and he was represented in two forms. The iconic form of Siva was Lingodhbhava, and the Nataraja idol was the human form.

A highly evolved philosophical system called Saiva Siddhanta was founded
during this period.

Kulathunga Chola was ardent shaivite. He persecuted vaishnavites. Bhakti saint Ramnujacharya left Srirangam and settled in Melkote,Karntaka.

Literature

Tamil and Sanskrit languages flourished during the Chola period. Tamil literature witnessed golden age.

Few Tamil literary works are:

• Kamban Ramayan by Kamban (Tamil Ramayan)
• Periyapuranam or Tiruttondarpuranam by Sekkilar
• Kalladam by Kalladanar
• Nalavenba was written by Pugalendi etc.

Kesava swami composed the Sanskrit work nannaranava samkshevam.

Architecture

Chola art saw culmination of dravida temple art resulting in most sophisticated buildings.

They used material of stone instead of bricks due to its greater durability. Neatly detailed frescos including birds, dancing figurines and other pictorial stories from Puranas. Some temples have potraits of the Kings and queens themselves.

The temples had a Garbhaghriha(Deity room); Vimana(Brihadeshwara Temple); Shikhara(Stone weighing 90 tonne); Mandap. Metal Art(Nataraja at Chidamabaram Temple) Lofty Gates

Examples include Brihadeswara , Vijayalaya temples

Chola bronze sculptures

The cire-perdu or ‘lost-wax’ process for casting was learnt as long ago as the Indus Valley Culture. Along with it was discovered the process of making alloy of metals by mixing copper, zinc and tin which is called bronze. The bronze casting technique and making of bronze images of traditional icons reached a high stage of development in South India during the medieval period.

The well-known dancing figure of Shiva as Nataraja was evolved and fully developed during the Chola Period and since then many variations of this complex bronze image have been modelled.

A wide range of Shiva iconography was evolved in the Thanjavur (Tanjore) region of Tamil Nadu. The ninth century kalyanasundara murti is highly remarkable for the manner in which Panigrahana (ceremony of marriage) is represented by two separate statuettes.

Shiva with his extended right hand accepts Parvati’s (the bride’s) right hand, who is depicted with a bashful expression and taking a step forward.

The union of Shiva and Parvati is very ingeniously represented in the Ardhanarisvara Murti (in fig) in a single image.

Chola bronzes are the most sought-after collectors’ items by art lovers all over the world.

FAQs

• Key concept: Ardeshir Burzorji Tarapore • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

Lieutenant Colonel Ardeshir Burzorji Tarapore was born on August 18, 1923 in Mumbai. He was popularly known as "Adi". Ardeshir was transferred to the 1st Hyderabad Imperial Service Lancers, which fought The Poona Horse, Ardeshir's later unit, in Operation Polo. He saw active service in West Asia during World War II. Hyderabad later merged with the Union of India, and its forces eventually amalgamated with the Indian Army.

Ardeshir was shifted to The Poona Horse with commission date of 1st April 1951. He rose to become Commanding Officer in the Indo-Pak War of 1965. While leading his regiment in securing a major objective in Pakistan, Lieutenant Colonel Tarapore was mortally wounded. Though his own tank was hit several times, he maintained his pivots at both these places, supporting the infantry attacking Chawinda. Inspired by his leadership, the regiment attacked the enemy armor and destroyed approximately 60 Pakistani Army tanks, suffering only 9 tank casualties.

However, Tarapore was martyred when his tank was hit and was enveloped in flames. He was awarded Param Vir Chakra for his action in the battle.

• Key concept: Bhakti Movement • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

There is a close relationship between socio-political and economic trends and religious activity, the bhakti movements cannot be seen in isolation.

The 14th and 15th centuries saw the decline of the powerful and centralized state.

Economic Front

• Artisans were coming from the ranks of people outside the professions
• They were not accepted as equals among the Indian artisans.
• Merchants also did not find a place in the social hierarchy.

Religious Equality

• People opposed to the traditional, rigid, elaborate and meaningless rituals that had crept into the society.

Social Participation

• The people who did not fit into the broad varna set-up were termed as the chandalas or the out-castes

Characteristics of Bhakti & Sufi Movement

• Term ‘Bhakti’ symbolises ‘devotion or passionate love for the Divine’.
• Focused on singular devotion, mystical love for God

• These saints spoke of a direct relationship between man and god
• They had no desire to set up a separate religion, nor did they have blind faith in any of the sacred scriptures.
• The bhakti saints preached in simple vernaculars

• They came from the lower sections of society and worked for their living.
• Most of the bhakti saints were artisans by origin or belonged to the class of less prosperous cultivators

Phases of Bhakti Movement

1st phase

• The first phase can be traced back to the origin of the Bhagavata cult
• In south India, Bhakti grew from a religious tradition to a popular movement in the 7th and 12th century CE

2nd phase

• The second phase, spanning nearly four centuries, extended from the 13th to the 16th centuries
• They were not linked with any particular religious creed and did not believe in rituals and ceremonies.
• They condemned polytheism and believed in one god.
• Greatly emphasized on the fundamental unity of all religions.

1st phase of Bhakti Movement

Sankaracharya

• Hindu revivalist movement of the 9th century
• He was born in Kaladi (Kerala)
• he propounded the Advaita (Monism) philosophy and Nirguna brahman (god without attributes).
• In Advaita, the reality of the world is denied and Brahman is considered as the only reality.
• According to him, gyaan (knowledge) alone can lead to salvation.
• He wrote commentary on the Bhagvat Gita, Upadesh Shastri, Vivek Chudamani, Bhaja Govindum Stotra
• Established mathas at Sringiri, Dwarka, Puri, and Badrinath.

Ramanuja

• Born at Sriperumbudur near modern Chennai in the 12th century.
• He opposed the mayavada of Shankara
• He advocated the philosophy of Vishihsta Advaitavada (qualified monism),
• He founded the Sri Vaishnava sect.
• According to him, God is Saguna Brahman.
• He wrote Sribhashya, Vedanta dipa, Gita Bhasya, Vedantasara

Madhavacharya

• In the 13th century, Madhava from Kannada region
• He propagated Dvaita or the dualism of the Jivatma and Paramatma.
• He also founded the Brahma Sampradya

Nimbraka

• Nimbraka propounded the Dvaita advaita philosophy and the philosophy of Bheda Abheda
• Preacher of Vaishnavite Bhakti in the Telangana region.
• Worshipper of Krishna and Radha and established his ashrama in Braja (Mathura).
• He also founded the Sanak Sampradaya

Vallabhacharya

• Born in Benaras in the 15th century and lived at the court of Krishnadeva Raya.
• He propounded the Shudhadvaita (pure monism)
• He was a preacher of the Krishna cult.
• Its philosophy is Pushtimarga.
• He founded the Rudra Sampradya
• Surdas was the disciple of Vallabhacharya who was blind and popularized the Krishna cult in north India.

Vidyapati

• Vidyapati was a 14th century Maithili poet known for his
• His poetry dedicated to Shiva

Bhakti movement in Maharashtra

Jnaneswara or Jnanadeva

• A 13th century pioneer bhakti saint of Maharashtra
• commentary on the Bhagvat Gita called Jnanesvari
• Arguing against caste distinctions
• Known as Maharashtra dharma

Namdeva

• He was a poet-saint from Maharashtra belonging to the 14th century
• He was greatly influenced by Islam
• One the five revered gurus in the Dadu panth tradition, other four being Dadu, Kabir, Ravidas, and Hardas

Sant Eknath

• He was a Marathi saint Varkari sampradaya, belonging to the 16th century.
• In the development of Marathi literature, Eknath is seen as a bridge between his predecessors Dnyaneshwar and Namdeva and the later Tukaram and Ramdas.
• He introduced a new form of Marathi religious song called Bharood.

Tukaram

• Tukaram was a 17th century poet-saint in Maharashtra
• He was a Sudra by birth.
• Tukaram is known for his Avangas (dohas)
• He was a contemporary of Shivaji and was responsible for creating a background for Maratha nationalism, ‘Parmaratha’.

Ramdasa

• He was born in 1608 and was the spiritual guide of Shivaji.
• He wrote Dasabodha, combining his vast knowledge of sciences and arts with the principles of spiritual life.

2nd phase of Bhakti Movement

Ramananda

• Ramananda lived in the 15th century, born in Allahabad
• He was a follower of Ramanuja.
• Later, he founded his own sect and preached his principles in Hindi at Benaras and Agra.
• He considered it to be the link between the South Indian Bhakti and North Indian Vaishnava Bhakti traditions
• He was the founder of the Ram cult in north India.
• Ramananda like the monotheist bhakti saints, also rejected caste hierarchies
• He was against the rigidity of the Hindu philosophy
• His major contribution was the use of the common language
• The teachings of Ramananda created two distinct schools among his disciples and the later bhakti saints.

Schools

Nirguna

• Nirguna school represented by Kabir
• Kabir preached absolute abolition of caste and seriously questioned the authority of the Vedas.
• He also made an attempt to learn  from Islam and tried to establish a synthetic movement which made him to declare the famous dictum that Ram and Rahim are equal.
• Some of the other important saints Nanak, Dadu Dayal, Raidas, etc.
• These philosophers denied both the Hindu and the Muslim ideas of God and even equated them by stating that they were identical.

Saguna

• Suguna tried to enrich the religion of Hinduism and also preserved the authority of the Vedas and did not wish to break away from the past.
• Chaitanya, Shankardeva, Surdas, Mirabaiand Tulsidas are some of the most important saguna saints.

Nirguna School

Kabir (1398 – 1518)

• Kabir was a Bhakti poet whose verses are found in the Sikh holy scripture, Adi Granth.
• He was born near Benares to a Brahman widow, but was brought up by a Muslim couple
• Kabir laid great emphasis on the equality of man before God.
• His dohas and sakhi (poems), whose collection is found in the Bijak
• Other writings are ‘Sakhi Granth’, ‘Anurag Sagar’ and ‘Kabir Granthawali’
• Sikandar Lodhi was his contemporary

Sikh Gurus

Dadu Dayal (1544–1603)

• Dadu Dayal is one of the major representatives of the Nirguna Sant
• He was from Gujarat, who spent the best part of his spiritual life in Rajasthan.
• ‘Dadu’ means ‘brother’, and ‘Dayal’ means ‘the compassionate one’
• Emperor Akbar was one of his followers.
• His followers, Dadupanthis, expose their dead like the Parsis.

Saguna School

Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1436 – 1533)

• Well-known saint, ascetic Hindu monk, and social reformer of Bengal
• He popularised the Krishna cult in the 16th century.
• Popularised the Sankirtan/Kirtan system
• biography of Chaitanya was written by Krishnadas Kaviraj.

Surdas (1483—1563)

• He popularized the Krishna cult in UP
• He was the author of Sur Sagara, Sur Sarawali

Mirabai (1498—1569)

• Hailing from the Sisodia dynasty of Chittor
• She was a great devotee of Krishna
• Popularised his cult in Rajasthan through her songs.

Sankaradeva (1463—1568)

• A contemporary of Chaitanya, he spread Vaishnava bhakti in Assam.

Tulsidas (1532—1623)

• He was a worshipper of Rama
• Tulsidas composed the famous Ramcharit manas in Hindi
• Expounding the various aspects of Hindu dharma.

Narsingh Mehta

• Saint from Gujarat who wrote songs in Gujarati depicting the love of Radha–Krishna.
• Author of Mahatma Gandhi’s favorite bhajan –“Vaishanava jan ko”

Saint Tyagaraja

• He was one of the greatest composers of Carnatic music,

• Saint Tyagaraja composed thousands of devotional compositions, most in Telugu and in praise of Lord Ram.
• He was a prolific composer and composed the famous Pancharatna Kritis

Sufism in India

• The word ‘sufi’ is derived from ‘suf’, which means wool in Arabic, it also means ‘purity’,Sufism or mysticism emerged in the 8th century,The early known Sufis were Rabia al-Adawiya, Al-Junaid, and Bayazid Bastami.Well-developed movement by the end of the 11th century.Al Hujwiri, is regarded as the oldest Sufi in the sub-continent.By the 12th century, the Sufis were organised in Silsilahs

Sufism in India

Impact of Bhakti Movement

• Development of Regional Literature
• Lower classes and women were raised to a position of greater importance.
• Interaction and unity among the two communities, Hindu and Muslim

New Languages Emerged

Hindi

• The Hindi language originated between the 7th and 10th centuries.
• The first stage of Hindi literature, known as adi kala (1206—1318)
• Narapati Nalha and Amir Khusrau were the two major poets of the adi kala.
• The second stage, known as bhakti Kala (1318—1643

Urdu

• It emerged due to the interaction of Persian and Indian languages in the military camps of Alauddin Khalji
• The Deccan was the cradle of Urdu and the language flourished first in the kingdoms of Bijapur and Golconda
• Amir Khusro interspersed it with Persian as the first school of ghazal poets emerged in the Deccan during the 15th and 16th centuries
• The works of Vali reached Delhi in 1720, the town was in an uproar and,within a decade, Urdu became the language of poetry

Oriya

• Although Oriya originated in the 8th century, major works in the language appeared only in the 13th and 14th centuries.
• Important Oriya writers were Sarladasa (Mahabharata in the 14th century),

Bengali

• The first stage covered the period between the 10th and 12th centuries.
• Its literature was mainly in the form of folk songs and influenced by the philosophy of the Sahaja cult

Gujarati

• The first phase, from the 13th to 15th centuries
• It was marked by two main forms—the prabandha (narrative poem) and the mukta (shorter poem)
• Important poets of this phase were Sridhara and Bhima

Marathi

• Marathi literature emerged in the latter half of the 13th century.
• A major contribution was made by the saint poets of the Natha cult (founded by Gorakhanatha) such as Mukundaraja

Tamil

• The literature of the Alvars or Vaishnava saints was known as Prabhanda, the most important among them being Nalayiram

Telugu

• The group of poets called kavitraya were Nannaya (1Ith century), Tikkana (13th century) and Yerrapragada(13th and 14th century).
• They translated the Mahabharata into Telugu.

Kannada

• The earliest extant work in Kannada is Kavirajamarga by Rashtrakuta Amoghavarsha I.

Malayalam

• The earliest literary work in Malayam is Unnunili Sandesam, a work by an unknown writer of the 14th century
• Ramanuja Elluttoccan (greatest of all) wrote Harinamakirtanam, Bhagavatam Kilippattu

FAQs

• Key concept: Sufism in India • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

Sufism was a liberal reform movement within Islam. It had its origin in Persia and spread into India in the 11th century. Most of the Sufis (mystics) were persons of deep devotion who disliked the display of wealth and degeneration of morals following the establishment of the Islamic empire.

• The word ‘sufi’ is derived from ‘suf’, which means wool in Arabic, it also means ‘purity’,
• Sufism or mysticism emerged in the 8th century,
• The early known Sufis were Rabia al-Adawiya, Al-Junaid, and Bayazid Bastami.
• Well-developed movement by the end of the 11th century.
• Al Hujwiri, is regarded as the oldest Sufi in the sub-continent.
• By the 12th century, the Sufis were organised in Silsilahs

Chisti Order

• Established in India by Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti,
• He moved to India after the invasion of Muhammad Ghori, and settled in Ajmer around c.1206 CE
• His dargah reached unprecedented heights after the support of Mughal Emperor Akbar.
• The Chisti presence in Delhi was established by Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki (the Qutub Minar is named after him)
• Another sufi saint was Nizamuddin Auliya, who lived in the 14th century

Suhrawardi Silsilah

• The Silsilah was founded by Shihabuddin Suhrawardi in Baghdad
• It was established in India by Bahauddin Zakariya.

Naqshbandi Silsilah

• This order was established in India by Khwaja Bahauddin Naqshbandi
• Propagated by his successors, Sheikh Baqi Billah and Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi

Qadri Silsilah

• The Quadiriyya Silsilah, was popular in Punjab
• Started during the Mughal rule under the teachings of Sheikh Abdul Qadir and his sons, Shaikh Niamtullah, Mukhdum Muhammad Jilani, and Miyan Mir, who had enrolled the Mughal princess Jahanara and her brother Dara as disciples.
• Another prominent pir was Shah Badakhshani.

Importance of Sufism in India

Sufism in India has a history of over 1000 years. Muslims that arrived or resided in this country can be divided into two camps. There were the extremely religious teachers called ulemas and the fakirs who are known as Sufis today. The fakirs were generally tolerant of other religions and even had non-Islamic followers in some cases.

The main reason behind the early popularity of Sufism in India was the Khanqahs. Khanqahs were large gathering halls where followers lived with their gurus or teachers. The gathering halls also acted as community centres and were open to everyone, specifically providing support and sustenance to poor people. They also became known as a centre for spiritual learning which helped in further enhancing their popularity. As Sufis played an important role in the intellectual development of India their contributions in the field of religion and society are immense.

The Sufis also abstained from religious and communal conflicts and reached out even to the poor and marginalised communities.

FAQs

• Key concept: Sikhism
• Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams.
• Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

Sikh Gurus

Guru Nanak (1469 – 1539)

• Guru Nanak is the 1st Sikh Guru and founder of the Sikhism, who was also a Nirguna Bhakti Saint.
• He was born in a village of Talwandi (now called Nankana, in Pakisthan), on the banks of the river Ravi in 1469.
• Guru Nanak was opposed to all distinctions of caste.
• He is also said to have met Babur.
• After his death, his followers called themselves ‘Sikhs’ and a new religious sect, Sikhism, was founded.
• Nanak was followed by nine Sikh gurus.

Guru Angad

• The 2nd guru, started the Gurumukhi script.
• He started the tradition of Mall Akhara

Guru Amardas

• The 3rd guru, began the institution of langar (commonkitchen) to abolish the caste system.
• Preached against the Hindu society’s sati system and advocated widow-remarriage
• Asked Akbar to remove the pilgrim’s tax for non-Muslims

Guru Ramdas

• 4th guru, was given the site of Harmandir at Amritsar by Akbar.
• Guru Ramdas also laid the foundation stone of Chak Ramdas or Ramdas Pur, now called Amritsar.
• Composed the four Lawans (stanzas) of the Anand Karaj, a distinct marriage code for Sikhs.

Guru Arjan

• 5th guru, compiled 1st official edition of Sikh scripture Adi Granth,
• Later it expanded into the Guru Granth Sahib.
• Guru Arjan completed the construction of the Harmandir at Amritsar.
• He installed the Adi Granth inside the new temple in 1604.
• Guru Arjan was arrested asked to convert to Islam under the orders of Jahangir.
• He refused, was tortured and executed in 1606.

Guru Hargobind

• 6th guru, who was also imprisoned by Jahangir for ten years.
• Longest tenure as Guru.
• He transformed Sikhs into a militant community, established the Akal Takht, and fortified Amritsar.
• Defeated a Mughal army at Sangrama.
• Took the title of Sachcha Padshah.
• Shifted his headquarters to Kartarpur.
• Guru Hargobind was the proprietor of the concept of miri and piri

Guru Tegh Bahadur

• The 9th guru, was executed by Aurangzeb

Guru Gobind Singh

• 10th and last guru
• He passed the Guruship of the Sikhs to the Guru Granth Sahib.
• Established the Khalsa in 1699 at Anandpur Sahib and organised the Sikhs into a military sect.
• All his sons were killed by a Mughal army at Sirhind, and he was also slain by a Pathan in revenge.
• The orthodox Sikhs are also distinguished by the five kakka (the five k’s), kesa (top knot), kachha (short drawers), kara (iron bangle), kanga (comb) and kirpan (sword)

• Key concept: Rajput Dynasties • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

The term Rajput denotes a tribe or clan, the members of which claimed themselves as Kshatriyas belonging to the ‘solar’ or lunar’ dynasties.

The Hunas, Gurjaras and the other allied tribes who entered India during the 5th and 6th centuries merged themselves with the Indians, just as their predecessors, the Greeks, the Kushanas and the Sakas had done.

The Rajput dynasties formed by the social promotion of aborigines were inimical to the Rajputs descended from foreigners.

Paramara Dynasty (9th–14th Century CE)

The Paramara Dynasty (9th–14th Century CE) was a powerful Rajput clan that ruled the Malwa region in Central India. Known for their patronage of art, literature, and temple architecture, they played a pivotal role in the resistance against early Islamic invasions.

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Solanki Dynasty (950 -1300)

Mularaja I

• The Chalukyas or Solanki Dynasty ruled Gujarat and Kathiawar
• Mularaja established an independent kingdom with its capital at Anahilapataka

Bhima I  (1022–64)

• His kingdom was rudely shaken by the invasion of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni who plundered the immense riches of the famous temple of Somnatha.
• The famous Dilwara temple was built at Abu in the Reign of Bhima I.
• His queen Udayamati built Ran-ki vav

Karna

• He built numerous temples and founded a city after his name, now represented by Ahmadabad.

Jayasimha

• Scholar Hemachandra, who wrote the Siddha-Hemachandra, was in JAyasimha’s court.

Kumarapala

• He embraced Jainism under the influence of Hemachandra.

Mularaja II

• In 1178 Muizuddin Muhammad Ghori invaded Gujarat.
• Solanki dynasty under Mularaja’s mother bravely opposed the Muslims and defeated them near Mt. Abu.
• Qutub-ud-din invaded Gujarat and plundered Anahilapataka in 1197
• Later Gujarat was conquered by Alauddin Khalji.

Chahamanas Dynasty

• The main branch ruled in Sakambhari, modern Sambhar, in Jaipur Vasudadeva founded the main line in the middle of the 6th century

Vakpatiraja

• He built at Pushkaraa temple for Siva.

Prithviraja I

• He is reputed to have killed a body of 700 Chalukyas who had come to Pushkara to rob the Brahmins

Ajayaraja II

• He founded the city of Ajayameru or Ajmer

Vigraharaja III

• He composed the celebrated drama, Harikeli Nataka.
• Among the many temples built by him at Ajmer, the Sarasvati Mandira is undoubtedly the best.

Prithviraj Chauhan

• Jayachandra organised a svayamvara ceremony for the marriage of his beautiful daughter Samyukta. Prithviraj Chauhan was not invited there.
• He succeeded in carrying off the Gahadvala princess by force.
• Prithviraj Chauhan met Muhammad Ghori at the field of Tarain in 1190-91.
• 1st battle of Tarain was disastrous for the Muhammad Ghori.
• Shihab-ud-din came to Tarain in 1192 practically unopposed by passing through Multan and Lahore.
• One lakh soldiers were killed in the 2nd battle of Tarain, including Govindaraja, chief of Delhi.
• Prithviraj Chauhan himself was taken prisoner and executed thereafter.
• Prithvirajavijaya and Prithviraj Raso, written by his court poets Jayanaka and Chanda (Chand Bardai) respectively.

Gahadvalas Dynasty

• The emergence of the Gahadvalas in Kanauj in the latter part of the 11th century.
• The Gahadvala dynasty was founded by Yasovigraha

Chandradeva

• He made Banaras the second capital

Govindachandra

• Govindachandra raised Kanauj to unprecedented glory.
• His minister named Lakshmidhara produced Kritya Kalpataru or Kalpadruma.

Jayachandra

• Muiz-ud-din Muhammad Ghori, who, after conquering Delhi and Ajmer from the Chahamanas, advanced with a large force against Kanaujin 1193
• patronage extended by him to Sriharsha, who wrote the well-known Naisadhacharita, Khandana-khanda-khadya
• Adakkamalla, was deprived of his ancestral kingdom by Iltutmish

Chandela Dynasty

• Chandela dynasty had rule over Bundelkhand.
• The Chandela dynasty claim their descent from Chandratreya, a descendant of the Moon dynasty.
• The earliest capital of the Chandela dynasty kings seems to have been at Khajuraho.
• Khajuraho reached its zenith in the 10th century.
• Nannuka founded the dynasty in the first quarter of the 9th century around Khajuraho in Bundelkhand.

Yasovarman

• He built a magnificent temple at Khajuraho.
• In the Chaturbhuja temple, he installed the image of Vishnu.

Dhanga (954-1002)

• The most famous ruler of the Chandela dynasty.
• Temples of Jinanatha and Vaidyanatha were also built during the reign of Dhanga

 Ganda

• Sultan Mahmud twice invaded his kingdom in 1019 and 1022.

Paramard

• He was defeated at the hands of Prithviraj Chauhan.
• In 1202, Qutub-ud-din Ibak seized and plundered the fort of Kalinjar, the strong citadel of the Chandellas.
• In1309, Alauddin Khalji conquered the greater part of the kingdom.
• The last known king of Chandela dynasty is Viravarman II.

Kalachuri dynasty

• The Kalachuri dynasty, also known as the Haihayas, have been referred to the Epics and the Puranas.
• Their earliest seat of power was possibly at Mahishmati on the bank of Narmada river.
• Three Kalachuri kings- Krishnaraja, his son Sankaragana and the latter’s son Buddharaja—were known to have ruled between 550-620.

• Several branches of the Kalachuris were settled in different parts of northern India.
• One of them founded a principality in Sarayupara in the modern Gorakhpur district.
• The most powerful, brunch ruled in the Chedi country in Bundelkhand.
• The Kalachuri dynasty of Chedi, also known as kings of ‘Dahala-mandala’ had their capital at Tripuri, near Jabalpur in Madhya  Pradesh.

Kokalla I

• Kokalla I accession on throne in  845 AD.
• He came into conflict with the Pratihara king Bhoja I and gained a victory over him.

Yuvaraja I

• Poet Rajasekhara, lived in the Kalachuri court, staged the famous drama Viddhasalabhanjika.

Gangeyadeva

• During his reign the Kalachuri dynasty became the greatest political power in India.
• Kalachuri dynasty remained unaffected by the marauding raids of Sultan Mahmud.
• He commemorated this great victory by assuming the proud title of ‘Trikalingadhipat

Karna

• Atisa Dipankara, who at that time had been residing in Magadha, took the initiative in inducing Karna and Nayapala, Pala king to conclude a treaty.
• Vijayasimha was the last kalachuri king of any importance.
• Trailokyavarman a Chandella king defeated him and conquered the whole of the Dahalamandala.

Tomaras

• The Tomaras are reckoned as one of the 36 Rajput dynasties.
• According to the bardic tradition, Anangpal Tuar founded Delhi in 736 and established the Tomara dynasty.
• The Tomaras ruled the Haryana country from their capital city Dhillika or Delhi.

Society Under Rajputs

Major literary works of this period

• Kalhana’s Rajatarangin – ‘River of Kings’
• Jayadeva’s Gita Govindam – Song of the cowherd
• Somadeva’s Kathasaritasagar

• Chand Bardai, the court poet of Prithviraj Chauhan, wrote Prithviraj Raso in which he refers to the military exploits of Prithviraj Chauhan.
• Bhaskara Charya wrote Siddhanta Shiromani, a book on astronomy.
• Rajasekhara – The court poet of Mahendrapala and Mahipala. His best known works were Karpuramanjari, Kavyamimamsa, and Balaramayana.

Art and Architecture

• Mural paintings and Miniatures paintings were popular.
• Temples at Khajuraho
• Lingaraja Temple at Bhubaneshwar
• The Sun Temple at Konark
• The Dilwara Temple at Mount Abu

Religion

• The Rajputs were staunch followers of Hinduism.
• They also patronized Buddhism and Jainism.
• During their period the Bhakti Cult started.

FAQs

• Key concept: Bhil Revolt (1817-19) • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

The Bhils who lived in the Western Ghats controlled the mountain passes between the north and the Deccan.

They revolted against Company rule in 1817-19, as they had to face famine, economic distress, and misgovernment.

The British used both force and conciliatory efforts to control the uprising. However, the Bhils revolted again in 1825, 1831, and in 1846.

This uprising took place in the Khandesh region of Maharastra under the leadership of Sewaram due to agrarian hardships.

Where are Bhil tribes found?

The Bhil are distributed widely in upland areas of several states, from Ajmer in central Rajasthan on the north, to Thane in western Maharashtra on the south, to Indore in western Madhya Pradesh on the east, and to Surat in southeastern Gujarat on the west.

FAQs

• Key concept: Chuar Revolt • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

Famine-enhanced land revenue demands, and economic distress goaded the Chuar aboriginal tribesmen of the Jungle Mahal of the Midnapore district and also of the Bankura district (in Bengal) to take up arms.

These tribals were basically farmers and hunters.

The uprising lasted from 1766 to 1772 and then, again surfaced between 1795 and 1816.

The term Char or Chuar was used for local tribals in Bengal and it was a derogatory word {meaning pig}.

The leader of this revolt was Durjan Singh, a displaced Zamindar who along with his 1500 followers created havoc.

Some historians object the use of term “Chuar” for this rebellion because it was derogatory term used by ruling class. Some want this revolt to be named as ‘Freedom Struggle of the Jangal Mahal’.

FAQs

• Key concept: Santhal Rebellion (1855) • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

It was a revolt against the oppression of colonial rule to end the despotic British revenue system and the zamindari system in India.

The rebellion was led by the four Murmu Brothers - Sidhu, Kanhu, Chand and Bhairav.

The Santhals took to arms. In many villages, the Zamindars, money lenders and their operatives were put to death.

The revolt was brutally crushed, the two celebrated leaders Sidhu and Kanhu were killed.

The legend of the Santhal Rebellion lives on as a turning point in Santhal pride and identity.

It is estimated that between 15,000 to 20,000 Santhals were killed by the British. The brothers Sidhu and Kanhu, were among the casualties. Even though the rebellion was suppressed within a year in 1856 by the Company, few pockets of Santhal resistance continued till 1857.

FAQs

• Key concept: KHASI UPRISING (1830s) • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

The Anglo-Khasi War was part of the independence struggle between the Khasi people and the British Empire between the years 1829-1833. The war started with Tirot Sing's attack on a British garrison that disobeyed orders of this Khasi king to stop a road construction project through the Khasi Hills.

After having occupied the hilly region between Garo and Jaintia Hills, the East India Company wanted to build a road linking the Brahmaputra Valley with Sylhet.

For this, a large number of outsiders including Englishmen, Bengalis and the laborers from the plains were brought to these regions.

The Khasis, Garos, Khamptis and the Singphos organized themselves under Tirath Singh to drive away from the strangers from the plains. The uprising developed into a popular revolt against British rule in the area.

By 1833, the superior English military force had suppressed the revolt.

FAQs

• Key concept: Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-1784) • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-1784)

Haidar Ali accused the English of breach of faith and non-observance of the Treaty of Madras when in 1771 he was attacked by the Marathas, and the English failed to come to his aid.

Haidar forged an anti-English alliance with the Marathas and the Nizam but the English detached both the Marathas and the Nizam from Haidar’s side.

Haidar faced the English boldly only to suffer a defeat at Porto Novo in November 1781 but he regrouped his forces and defeated the English and captured their commander.

The war was carried on by Tipu Sultan after the death of Haidar in 1782.

Fed up with an inconclusive war, both sides opted for peace, negotiating the Treaty of Mangalore (March 1784) under which each party gave back the territories it had taken from the other.

FAQs

Also, Read

• 1st Mysore War
• 2nd Anglo-Mysore War (1780-1784)
• 3rd Anglo-Mysore War (1790-1792)
• 4th Anglo-Mysore War (1799)

• Key concept: Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790-1792) • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790-1792)

In April 1790, Tipu declared war against Travancore for the restoration of his rights, and the English, siding with Travancore, attacked Tipu.

With support from Nizam and Marathas, Tipu was defeated. Under the Treaty of Seringapatam, nearly half of Mysore’s territory was taken over by the victors. Besides, war damage of three crore rupees was also taken from Tipu.

FAQs

Also, Read

• 1st Mysore War
• 2nd Anglo-Mysore War (1780-1784)
• 3rd Anglo-Mysore War (1790-1792)
• 4th Anglo-Mysore War (1799)

• Key concept: Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799) • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799)

The Fourth Anglo-Mysore War was a conflict in South India between the Kingdom of Mysore against the British East India Company and the Hyderabad Deccan in 1798–99. This was the final conflict of the four Anglo-Mysore Wars. The British captured the capital of Mysore. The ruler Tipu Sultan was killed in the battle.

Lord Wellesley, an imperialist to the core was concerned about Tipu’s growing friendship with the French and aimed at annihilating Tipu’s independent existence or force him to submission through the system of Subsidiary Alliance.

The war began on April 17, 1799 and ended on May 4, 1799 with the fall of Seringapatam. The English was again helped by the Marathas and the Nizam.

The new state of Mysore was handed over to the old Hindu dynasty (Wodeyars) under a minor ruler Krishnaraja III, who accepted the subsidiary alliance.

FAQs

Also, Read

• 1st Mysore War
• 2nd Anglo-Mysore War (1780-1784)
• 3rd Anglo-Mysore War (1790-1792)
• 4th Anglo-Mysore War (1799)

• Key concept: KHELCHAWA FESTIVAL • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

Khelchawa Festival is an annual cultural and sports festival held in the state of Assam, India. The festival is organized by the Department of Sports and Youth Welfare, Assam, and is held in different parts of the state in order to promote sports and cultural activities among the youth of Assam.

Tiwa tribals celebrate Khelchawa festival in Assam. This festival is celebrated every five years. After the harvesting season is over Tiwa community celebrates the festival for a good harvest.

The festival also celebrates the efforts of young boys becoming an adult. Pigs are also sacrificed during the festival as a mark of respect for their local deities collectively known as Lampha Raja.

Tiwa tribesmen are recognized as a Scheduled tribe within the State of Assam. Further, they are divided into two subgroups namely Hill Tiwas and Plain Tiwas.

Tiwa tribesmen take part in dance during the Khelchawa festival in Karbi Anglong district of Assam.

The Khelchawa Festival features a variety of sports and cultural events, such as traditional dances, music performances, and sporting competitions in disciplines such as football, cricket, athletics, and basketball. The festival also includes workshops and seminars on sports, health, and wellness, as well as food and craft stalls showcasing the rich cultural heritage of Assam.

The Khelchawa Festival is attended by thousands of people from all over the state, and is an important event in the cultural calendar of Assam. It is a celebration of the diversity and vibrancy of Assamese culture, and a platform for the youth of the state to showcase their skills and talents.

Overall, the Khelchawa Festival is a unique and exciting celebration of sports, culture, and youth in Assam, and is an important platform for promoting healthy and active lifestyles among the people of the state.

Quiz

1. What is the Khelchawa Festival?
a) An annual cultural and sports festival held in Assam
b) An annual religious festival held in Assam
c) An annual trade fair held in Assam
d) An annual political rally held in Assam

2. Who organizes the Khelchawa Festival?
a) Department of Education, Assam
b) Department of Health and Family Welfare, Assam
c) Department of Sports and Youth Welfare, Assam
d) Department of Transportation, Assam

3. Which tribe celebrates Khelchawa festival in Assam?
a) Bodo
b) Karbi
c) Tiwa
d) Dimasa

4. How often is the Khelchawa festival celebrated by Tiwa community?
a) Every year
b) Every three years
c) Every five years
d) Every ten years

5. What is sacrificed during the Khelchawa festival by Tiwa community?
a) Cows
b) Goats
c) Buffaloes
d) Pigs

6. Who are Lampha Raja?
a) Local officials
b) Local deities
c) Local businessmen
d) Local farmers

7. What is the significance of the Khelchawa festival for Tiwa community?
a) It celebrates the efforts of young boys becoming an adult
b) It celebrates the end of the rainy season
c) It celebrates the birth of a new Tiwa tribe member
d) It celebrates the anniversary of a great Tiwa leader

8. Which of the following is NOT a feature of the Khelchawa Festival?
a) Traditional dances
b) Music performances
c) Sporting competitions in disciplines such as football, cricket, athletics, and basketball
d) Film screenings

9. Who is recognized as a Scheduled tribe within the State of Assam?
a) Tiwa tribesmen
b) Karbi tribesmen
c) Bodo tribesmen
d) Dimasa tribesmen

10. Why is the Khelchawa Festival an important event in the cultural calendar of Assam?
a) It is a celebration of the diversity and vibrancy of Assamese culture
b) It is a celebration of the end of the harvest season
c) It is a celebration of the birth of a new tribe member
d) It is a celebration of the anniversary of a great Assamese leader.

Quiz Answer Key:

1. a, 2. c, 3. c, 4. c, 5. d, 6. b, 7. a, 8. d, 9. a, 10. a

• Key concept: Charter Act of 1813 • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

The Charter Act of 1813 was a significant piece of legislation passed by the British Parliament that had far-reaching implications for the governance of India.

The Charter Act of 1813 was an Act of the British Parliament that renewed the charter of the British East India Company. The Act was enacted on 10 May 1813 and came into effect on 22 April 1814. This Act was significant as it brought major changes in the administration and governance of the company.

The three most important pieces of information given in this answer are:

1. The Charter Act of 1813 was an Act of the British Parliament that renewed the charter of the British East India Company.
2. The Act was enacted on 10 May 1813 and came into effect on 22 April 1814.
3. The Act brought major changes in the administration and governance of the company.

The Charter Act of 1813 marked a significant turning point in British policy towards India. It abolished the monopoly of the British East India Company over trade with India and opened the door for Indian merchants to trade freely with the British Empire. This act was also important because it marked the beginning of a shift towards a more paternalistic approach to governance in India.

One of the most significant provisions of the Charter Act of 1813 was the creation of the Indian Education Commission. This commission was tasked with studying the educational needs of India and making recommendations for the establishment of schools and colleges throughout the country. This was the first step towards the modernization of education in India, which would ultimately lead to the establishment of universities and other institutions of higher learning.

Another important provision of the Charter Act of 1813 was the establishment of a bishopric in India. This move was significant because it paved the way for the establishment of Christian missionary schools and hospitals throughout the country. The British government believed that spreading Christianity would help to civilize the people of India and make them more amenable to British rule.

Why was the Charter Act of 1813 passed?

The Charter Act of 1813 was passed for several reasons. One of the main reasons was to renew the East India Company's charter, which was due to expire in 1814. Another reason was to address the growing concern in Britain about the company's activities in India, particularly the issue of corruption and mismanagement.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

• Key concept: The Non-Cooperation Movement • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

The Non-Cooperation Movement was a significant event in India's freedom struggle that marked a turning point in the country's history. It was a mass movement led by Mahatma Gandhi and other leaders against British colonial rule. In this article, we will delve into the history, significance, and impact of the Non-Cooperation Movement, and how it shaped India's independence movement.

What led to the Non-Cooperation Movement?

The Non-Cooperation Movement was a result of several events that took place in the early 20th century, including the partition of Bengal, the Rowlatt Act, and the Khilafat Movement. These events caused widespread discontent among the Indian population, and many leaders felt that it was time to take a more aggressive stance against British colonial rule.

The Objectives of the Non-Cooperation Movement

The primary objective of the Non-Cooperation Movement was to achieve swaraj, or self-rule, for India. This involved boycotting British goods and institutions, as well as refusing to pay taxes. The movement aimed to paralyze the British administration in India and force them to grant independence.

The Non-Violent Methods Used in the Non-Cooperation Movement

Mahatma Gandhi, the leader of the Non-Cooperation Movement, believed in non-violent resistance as a means of achieving political and social change. The movement involved hartal, or strike, picketing, and civil disobedience. This included boycotting British goods, offices, and institutions, as well as refusing to pay taxes and surrendering titles and honors.

The Impact of the Non-Cooperation Movement

The Non-Cooperation Movement had a significant impact on India's freedom struggle. It led to the emergence of new leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru, who would later become India's first Prime Minister. The movement also brought together people from different communities and religions, who united in their fight for independence. The British responded harshly to the movement, with many protestors being arrested and jailed. However, the movement did succeed in drawing international attention to the cause of Indian independence and inspiring other freedom movements around the world.

The Aftermath of the Non-Cooperation Movement

The Non-Cooperation Movement had a lasting impact on India's independence movement. The Salt Satyagraha, which was a direct consequence of the Non-Cooperation Movement, furthered the cause of Indian independence. The movement also inspired other freedom movements around the world, including in South Africa and the United States.

The Legacy of the Non-Cooperation Movement

The Non-Cooperation Movement played a crucial role in shaping India's independence movement. It inspired a generation of leaders and activists, who would go on to lead other mass movements like the Quit India Movement. The principles of non-violent resistance and civil disobedience, which were central to the movement, continue to inspire social and political change around the world today.

FAQs

• Key concept: Swadeshi Movement • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

The Swadeshi Movement was a pivotal chapter in the Indian freedom struggle that emerged as a result of the British colonization of India. It was a movement that aimed to boycott British goods and promote indigenous products to improve the country's economic and political conditions. The movement played a significant role in the country's independence, and its impact can still be felt in India's economic policies and social structures today.

The Swadeshi Movement emerged in India in the early 1900s during the British Raj. India was under British rule for more than 200 years, and the British exploited the country's resources for their own benefit, leaving India in poverty and despair. Indians were subjected to discriminatory laws, and their economy was destroyed as a result of British policies. In response to this, Indian nationalist leaders and activists began advocating for self-sufficiency and self-rule.

Early Phases of the Movement

The Swadeshi Movement began with the partition of Bengal in 1905, which was a political strategy employed by the British to weaken the growing Indian nationalist movement. This act of dividing Bengal, which had a significant impact on India's social, cultural, and economic fabric, triggered the Swadeshi Movement. Indians were outraged and protested against the partition by boycotting British goods, burning British-made clothes, and promoting indigenous products.

Spread

The movement spread quickly throughout India, with mass protests, strikes, and demonstrations organized in many cities and towns. Women also played a significant role in the movement, participating in boycotts and organizing spinning and weaving campaigns to produce their own cloth.

Personalities associates

The Swadeshi movement in India was associated with several prominent personalities who played key roles in its development and spread. Some of these individuals include:

1. Bal Gangadhar Tilak - A leading figure in the Indian independence movement, Tilak was a staunch supporter of Swadeshi and played a key role in mobilizing public support for the movement.
2. Lala Lajpat Rai - A prominent Indian nationalist, Lajpat Rai was a vocal advocate of Swadeshi and led many protests and demonstrations in support of the movement.
3. Mahatma Gandhi - Although Gandhi is often associated with the later Non-Cooperation movement, he was also a strong supporter of Swadeshi and encouraged the use of khadi, or Indian-made cloth, as a symbol of self-reliance and national pride.
4. Rabindranath Tagore - A noted writer, poet, and philosopher, Tagore was a strong supporter of Swadeshi and promoted the revival of traditional Indian arts and crafts.
5. Annie Besant - A British-born activist and theosophist, Besant was a vocal supporter of Indian nationalism and played an important role in organizing the Home Rule movement, which called for self-government for India within the British Empire.

These individuals, along with many others, helped to shape the Swadeshi movement and promote its ideals of self-sufficiency, national pride, and cultural revival.

Government response

The British colonial government in India responded to the Swadeshi movement with a combination of repression and reform.

On the one hand, the government used force to suppress protests and demonstrations, often resorting to violence and arrests to maintain order. This led to a number of clashes between protesters and police, and many activists were imprisoned or exiled for their involvement in the movement.

At the same time, however, the government also introduced a number of reforms aimed at placating nationalist sentiment and promoting economic development in India. For example, in 1909, the Morley-Minto reforms introduced limited political representation for Indians in the form of elected seats in the legislative councils. The government also established a number of institutions and programs aimed at promoting industrial and agricultural development in India, such as the Imperial Council of Agricultural Research and the Indian Institute of Science.

Despite these reforms, however, the Swadeshi movement continued to gain momentum, with many Indians rejecting the idea of limited representation within the colonial system and calling instead for complete independence. The movement played a significant role in shaping Indian nationalism and paved the way for the more radical Non-Cooperation and Quit India movements that would follow in the decades to come.

Impact of the Swadeshi Movement

One of the most important outcomes of the Swadeshi Movement was the growth of Indian industries and businesses. As part of the movement, Indians were encouraged to boycott British products and to buy locally made goods instead. This led to the establishment of a number of Indian industries, such as the textile industry, which had previously been dominated by British companies.

• Key concept: Karpoori Thakur: Champion of Social Justice and Recipient of the Bharat Ratna • Essential for UPSC CSE Prelims, State PSCs, SSC CGL & Railway exams. • Comprehensive analytical coverage and factual pointers provided below.

Karpoori Thakur was posthumously awarded the Bharat Ratna, India's highest civilian award, in 2024. This recognition came on the eve of his 100th birth anniversary, solidifying his legacy as a champion of social justice and advocate for the underprivileged.

Thakur was a charismatic leader who connected deeply with the masses through his simple lifestyle and powerful speeches. He was known for his honesty and integrity, even refusing luxurious accommodation and perks as Chief Minister. His policies and actions, though sometimes controversial, left a lasting impact on Bihar's political and social landscape.

About Karpoori Thakur:

• Born: January 24, 1924, in Pusa, Bihar
• Died: February 17, 1988
• Occupation: Politician, socialist leader, Chief Minister of Bihar (1975-79)
• Known for:
  • Advocating for the upliftment of backward classes and marginalized communities
  • Implementing populist policies like land reforms and minimum wages
  • Championing the cause of the poor and downtrodden, earning him the moniker "Jan Nayak" (People's Hero)
  • Leading mass movements and protests against social and economic injustices

Political Career:

• Thakur began his political career in the 1950s and quickly rose through the ranks of the socialist Samyukta Socialist Party (SSP).
• He was elected to the Bihar Legislative Assembly in 1961 and served as Leader of the Opposition for several years.
• In 1975, he became the Chief Minister of Bihar, leading a coalition government.
• His tenure was marked by progressive policies aimed at alleviating poverty and inequality, such as land redistribution, free education for the underprivileged, and increased minimum wages.
• His commitment to social justice earned him immense popularity among the rural and marginalized communities.
• However, his government faced challenges, including political instability and financial constraints.

Legacy:

• Karpoori Thakur remains a revered figure in Bihar and beyond, remembered for his unwavering dedication to social justice and his fight for the rights of the downtrodden.
• His life and work continue to inspire activists and politicians working towards a more equitable society.
• The conferment of the Bharat Ratna in 2024 served as a fitting tribute to his exceptional contributions to the nation.